THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


Vy  ~ 


VRATIVE  AND  HUMAN; 


IN   WHICH  ARE   DESCRIBED   THE 


MECHANICAL,  ANIMAL,  VITAL,   AND   SENSORIAL 
ORGANS  AND  FUNCTIONS  ; 

ALSO, 

THE     APPLICATION    OF   THESE    PRINCIPLES    TO     MUSCULAR   EXERCISE, 

AND    FEMALE    FASHIONS   AND    DEFORMITIES.     INTENDED  FOR 

THE   USE   OF   SCHOOLS  AND   HEADS   OF   FAMILIES. 


TOGETHER   WITH 

A    SYNOPSIS    OF    HUMAN    ANATOMY. 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  NUMEROUS  ENGRAVINGS. 


~By  J.  L.  r]i|TM'Fj'Tfip'iri  M    jj. 

AUTHOR  OF  "MINERALOGY,"  "NA'T^RAL  PHILOSOPHY,"  "CHEMISTRY," 
"BOTANY,"  "GEOLOGY,"  &c. 


REVISED    EDITION. 


NEW-YORK: 
PUBLISHED  BY  PRATT,  WOODFORD  &  CO. 

1848. 


"- 


''    ' 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  fhe  year  1847,  by 

J.   L.    COMSTOCK, 
in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Connecticut. 


01 


PREFACE. 


PERHAPS  the  author -"  the  following  work  cannot  do  better 
than  to  make  an  CA  ^t  or  two,  by  way  of  Preface,  from  Dr. 
DICK,  "On  Mental  Illumination  and  Moral  Improvement,"  in 
which  he  has  shown  the  want  of,  and  the  advantages  to  be  de- 
rived from,  a  treatise  on  Comparative  and  Human  Physiology 
'or  the  instruction  of  youth.  That  a  work  on  these  subjects  is 
-varied,  it  is  believed  every  intelligent  instructor  is  ready  to  ac- 
knowledge ;  and  whether  that  here  offered  to  the  public  will 
serve  the  required  purpose,  must  now  be  submitted  to  the  judg- 
ment of  others. 

"It  is  somewhat  unaccountable,"  says  Dr.  DICK,  "and  not  a 
little  inconsistent,  that  while  we  direct  the  young  to  look  abroad 
over  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  survey  its  mountains,  rivers, 
seas,  and  continents,  and  guide  their  views  to  the  regions  of  the 
firmament,  where  they  may  contemplate  the  moons  of  Jupiter, 
the  rings  of  Saturn,  and  thousands  of  luminaries  placed  at  im- 
measurable distances, —  *  *  that  we  should  never  teach  them 
to  look  into  themselves,  to  consider  their  own  corporeal  structures, 
the  numerous  parts  of  which  they  are  composed;  the  admirable 
functions  they  perform ;  the  wisdom  and  goodness  displayed  in 
their  mechanism,  and  the  lessons  of  practical  instruction  which 
may  be  derived  from  such  contemplations." 

Again,  the  same  author,  speaking  of  subjects  for  Natural  The- 
ology, enumerates  "  particularly,  the  curious  and  admirable  mech- 
anism displayed  in  the  construction  of  animated  beings,  from  the 
microscopic  animalcula,  ten  hundred  thousand  times  less  than  a 
visiblej^pfnt,  to  the  elephant  and  the  whale — the  organs  of  mas* 
ticatitoljj,  deglutition,  digestion,  and  secretion,  all  differently  con- 
triver, according  to  the  structure  of  the  animal,  and  the  aliments 
on''which  they  feed — the  eyes  of  insects,  and  the  thousands  of 
transparent  globules  of  which  they  consist — the  metamorphoses 
of  caterpillars  and  other  insects,  and  the  peculiar  organization 
adapted  to  each  state  of  their  existence — the  numerous  beauties, 
and  minute  adaptation  in  the  wings,  feet,  probosces,  and  feathers, 
of  gnats  and  other  insects — the  respiratory  apparatus  of  fishes, 
and  the  nice  adaptation  of  their  bodies  to  the  watery  fluid  in 
which  they  pass  their  existence — the  construction  of  birds,  their 
pointed  bills  to  penetrate  the  air,  their  flexible  tails  serving  for 
-udders,  the  lightness,  strength,  and  tenacity  of  their  feathers, 


*  PREFACE 

and  the  whole  structure  of  their  bodies  adapted  to  the  air  in 
which  they  fly,  and  the  food  by  which  they  are  sustained— above 
all,  the  wonders  of  the  human  frame,  the  numerous  parts  of 
which  it  is  composed;  the  hundreds  of  bones  and  muscles,  the 
thousands  of  veins  and  arteries,  glands,  nerves,  and  lymphatics — 
the  heart  with  its  ventricles  and  auricles,  the  brain,  "with  its  in- 
finity of  fibres,  the  lungs  with  their  millions  of  vesicles,  *  *  * 
— these  and  thousands  of  similar  objects,  adaptation  and  con- 
trivances which  appear  throughout  every  part  of  the  universal 
system." 

"  One  great  practical  end,"  says  he,  "  which  should  always  be 
kept  in  view  in  the  study  of  physiology,  is  the  invigoration  and 
improvement  of  the  corporeal  powers  and  functions,  the  preser- 
vation of  health,  and  the  prevention  of  disease." 

All  these,  and  many  other  subjects  of  a  similar  nature,  are 
noticed  in  this  volume,  and  if  the  author  has  succeeded  in  adapt- 
ing his  language  and  manner  to  the  understanding  of  youth,  he 
cannot  but  hope  that  this  treatise  will  be  the  means  of  greatly 
increasing  the  knowledge  of  the  rising  generation  in  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  useful  departments  of  natural  science;  and 
at  the  same  time  of  directing  their  attention,  especially  that  of 
females,  to  the  preservation  of  their  forms  and  their  health,  by 
avoiding  habits  and  fashions,  which  at  once  deform  their  persons 
and  ruin  their  constitutions.  • 

To  avoid  the  necessity  of  frequently  quoting  authorities,  we 
subjoin  a  list  of  authors  which  have  been  consulted  in  the  prog- 
ress of  the  more  strictly  physiological  part  of  this  work ;  the  ap- 
plication of  these  principles  toward  the  sequel,  being  chiefly  the 
original  suggestions  of  the  author. 

Among  the  authors  consulted,  we  are  especially  indebted  to 
the  "  Bridgewater  Treatise  on  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiol- 
ogy," by  Dr.  Roget.  From  this,  much  matter  and  many  cuts 
have  been  taken. 

Dr.  Ticknor,  "  On  the  Philosophy  of  Living,"  Harpers'  Fam- 
ily Library,  No.  77,  contains  a  mass  of  sound  and  valuable  ob- 
servations on  many  of  the  various  subjects  on  which  it  treats, 
but  was  unknown  to  the  author  until  too  late  for  him  to  take 
much  advantage  from  the  matter  it  contains.  Dr.  Alcott's  little 
book,  "  The  House  I  live  in,"  is  an  original  and  curious  treatise, 
and  is  well  calculated  to  arrest  the  attention  of  children,  and  to 
instruct  them  with  respect  to  the  structure  of  their  bodies. 

Dr.  Combe's  Physiology,  No.  77,  Harpers'  Family  Library,  is 
a  highly  valuable  and  sufficiently  popular  work  on  the  subject, 
and  ought  to  be  read  by  every  parent  and  school-teacher. 

HARTFORD,  Connecticut,  July,  1836. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

PHYSIOLOGY  EXPLAINED  .        .        9 

PAGE 

Ingenuity  of  Insects,        .        .      66 
Caddis  Worm,  ....      68 

PART  I. 

PART  II. 

MECHANICAL  FUNCTIONS 

12 

Sponsre,    .                         • 

12 

VERTEBRATED  ANIMALS,          .      71 

""\^.j 
Polvpiieraj         ...» 

15 

Animals  resist  heat  and  cold,  .      72 

Hydra        .                 ... 

18 

Structure  of  the  bones,     .        .      76 

Pennatulae,        .... 

20 

Formation  and  growth  of  bone,     79 

Infusoria,   .                 ... 

22 

Spine  of  the  vertebrata,    .        .      80 

Wheel  Animal,         .        i 

23 

Form  of  the  vertebrata,    .        .      81 

Portuguese  Man-  of-  War,  . 

24 

Skeleton  of  the  human  trunk, 

Sea  Urchin,       .        .        ... 

25 

and  arms,  ....      82 

26 

Unity  manifested  in  the  spines,      84 

Acephala,          .... 

27 

Mechanical    elements    01    the 

Cardium,            .... 

29 

vertebrae,    ....      85 

Cuttle-fish,         . 

30 

Vertebrae  of  Fish,      ...      86 

31 

Locomotion  of  Fishes,      .        .      87 

31 

Spines  of  Birds  and  Fishes,     .      91 

Lobster,     ..... 

32 

Skeleton  of  the  Swan,      .        .      91 

Process  of  casting  the  shell  of, 

32 

Comparison  of   the    bones  of 

Men  and  Birds,           .        :      92 

Insects,      

34 

Changes  in  the  forms  of  Insects, 

34 

PART  III. 

Silk-  Worm,        .... 

36 

Metamorphoses  of  Insects, 

37 

ANIMAL  FUNCTIONS,         .        .      93 

Larvae  that  feeds  on  the  parsnip, 

38 

Sources  of  Nutrition,        .        .      94 

Butterflies  :md  Moths, 

40 

Vegetable  Food,        ...       94 

Change  from  Chrysalis  to 
Butterfly,    .... 

41 

Animal  Food,                                     94 
Relation   between  animals  and 

Wings  of  the  Butterfly,  how 

their  food,  ....      96 

expanded,  .... 

43 

Man  Omnivorous,     ...      96 

Scales  on  the  wings,         .        . 

44 

Red  drops  emitted  by  Butter- 
flies,     
Ancient  showers  of  Blood, 

45 

46 

Animal  Nutrition,  ...      97 
Complexity  of  Stomach  in  the 
high  orders,        ...      98 

Tusseh  Silk-  Worm, 

60 

Man  eats  everything,        .        .      98 

Beetles,      
Blind  Beetles,   .... 

51  Grinding  of  Food.  ...      99 
52  Grinding  in  the  Lobster,  .        .     JOS 

White  Worm,    .... 

62  Gizzards  of  Birds,     .         .        •     100 

55 

58  Orfrnna   of  nutrition   a/n.A  viitnl. 

Structure  of  Insects, 

60 

ity  in  the  Mammalia,        .     102 
Plan  of  the    most    important 

Insects  walk  by  atmospheric 
pressure,                    « 

Viscera,    .                              103 
64  [Circulation  of  the  blood,         .      105 

CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

FA&K 

Mastication, 

106 

Respiration  in  Birds, 

146 

Teeth  of  Man, 

107 

Lungs  of  the  Ostrich,     . 

147 

Teeth  of  the  Tiger, 

108 

Teeth  of  the  Antelope, 

109 

Teeth  of  the  Rat, 

110 

Respiration  of  the  Mammalia, 

149 

Masticating  Organs   of  Man 
and  the  Mammalia, 

110 

Respiration  in  Man, 
Trunk  of  the  Human  Skeleton, 

149 
150 

Situation  of  the  Diaphragm, 

151 

Organs  of  Digestion,   . 
Human  Stomach,  . 

112 

112 

Human  Lungs  and  Heart, 
Chemical  Effects  of  Respiration, 

152 
153 

Gastric  juice, 

113 

Animal  Heat, 

155 

Chemical  Effects  of  the  Gas- 

tric Juice,  . 

114 

PART  V. 

Comparative  Digestion, 
Stomach  of  the  Sheep,  . 
Rumination,  .... 

115 
115 
117 

SENSORIAL  FUNCTIONS,         . 
Brain  and  Nerves, 
Nervous  Ganglions, 

156 
156 
158 

Relation   of  the  Horns  and 

Stoniucli                        •         • 

117 

Vision,  

159 

Water  cells  in  Camels'  Stom- 

117 

Structure  of  the  Human  Eye, 
Structure  of  the  Iris, 

159 
161 

Water    Cells    in    Elephants7 
Stomach,    .... 

118 

Physiology  of  Vision,    . 
Cause  of  the  inverted  Image, 

162 
166 

Food  of  Man  and  other  Ani- 

mals, ..... 

119 

Motions  of  the  Eye,     . 

169 

Elements  of  Nutrition^  . 
Food  nutritive  and  digestible, 
Man    requires    a  variety    of 

119 
119 

Magnitudes  and  Distances,   . 
Insensibility  to  certain  Colors, 
Comparative    Physiology    of 

170 
173 

food,   .                .        .        . 

120      Vision,        .... 

174 

Dr  Stark's  Experiments, 
Dr.  Magendie's  Experiments, 
Dr.  Cooper's  Experiments,     . 

121  Eyes  of  Insects,     . 
122  Eyes  of  Fishes, 
122  Eyes  of  Birds,        .        .        « 

175 
178 
179 

Dr.  Beaumont's  Experiments, 

123 
Audition,  or  Hearing,  . 

181 

PART  IV. 

Auditory  Organs  in  Man, 

183 

Bones  of  the  Ear, 

186 

CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD, 
Circulation  in  Insects,    . 
Circulation  in  the  Frog, 
Circulation  in  Fishes,     . 
Circulation  in  warm-blooded 
Animals,     .... 

127  Physiology  of  Hearing, 
1*8  Comparative    Physiology    of 
1^9      Hearing,     .... 
130  Hearing  in  the  Lobster, 
Hearing  in  the  Frog, 
Hcunnj?  in  BircJs*  *        •         • 

188 

189 
190 
190 
192 

Two  Hearts  separated, 

132  Musical  Ear, 

193 

Two  Hearts  united, 

132  Musical  Ear  situated  in  the 

The  two  Hearts  act  together, 

134      Brain,          .... 

195 

Number  of  Pulsations  of  the 

Heart,         .... 

134  Organs  of  Smell, 

196 

Effects  of  Alcohol  on  the  Cir- 
culation      .... 

Olfactory  Nerves  in  the  Duck, 
135  Audubon  on  the  Smell  of  Vul- 

197 

Alcohol  not   the  Product  of 

t  n»»£ic 

198 

Distillation, 
Muscular  force  of  the  Heart, 

136 
138 

Organs  of  Smell  in  Fishes,    . 

199 

Organs  of  Taste,          .        . 

200 

Respiration,  .... 
Respiration  in  the  Oyster,    . 

139 
140 

Organs  of  Touch,  .        .        * 

201 

Respiration  in  Fishes,    . 

141 

PART  VI. 

Respiration  in  the  Lamprey, 

142 

MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  Ex- 

Atmospheric  Respiration,      . 

142 

203 

Respiration  in  Insects, 

143 

Respiration  in  Reptiles, 
Respiration  in  the  Frog, 

J44 

145' 

The  Brain,    .... 
Size  of  the  Brain,  . 

203 
204 

Phrenology,  .... 
Phrenology  wants  more  facts, 
Roget's  Opinion,    . 
Bostock's  Sentiments,   .        . 
Double  Organs, 
Susceptibility  of  the  Brain,   . 

The  Muscles, 

Action  of  the  Muscles  depend 

on  the  Brain, 
Muscular  Contraction,  . 
Mechanism  of  the  Muscles, 
Muscular  Action  of  the  Arm 

and  Hand, 
Motions  of  the  Fingers, 

Connexion  between  the  Ner- 
vous and  Muscular  systems, 
Temperament  and  Disposition, 
Force  of  Muscular  Ccnlraction, 
Thomas  Topham, 
Increasing  the  Muscular  Pow- 


Practical  Inferences  from  the 
foregoing  Principles, 

Connection  between  the  Brain 
and  Muscles, 

Muscular  Exercise  of  the  Cler- 
gy and  other  Literary  Men, 

Obvious  Effects  of  too  much 
Mental  Labor,  . 

Clergymen  not  allowed  Exci- 
ting Exercise,  . 

Men  incapable  of  constant 
Mental  Labor,  . 

Former  Condition  of  the  Clergy, 

Different  Effects  of  Exercise, 

Muscular  Exercise  requires 
cerebral  Excitement, 

Dr.  Darwin's  Case, 

Nature  requires  exciting  Exer- 
cise, ..... 

Men  bound  to  use  such  Exer- 
cise as  conduces  to  Health, 

Effects  of  incessant  Mental 
Labor,  .... 

Mere  Attention  to  Diet  of  lit- 
tle Use,  . 

Cheerfulness  a  Remedy, 

Laughing  a  proper  Exercise, 

Different  Kinds  of  Muscular 

Exercise,    . 
Manual  Labor, 
Scientific  Excursions, 
Field-Sports, 
Angling, 
Riding,  .        , 


CONTENTS. 

7 

PAGE 

PAGE 

205 
206 
207 

Exciting  Exercise  absolutely 
necessary  to  the  Studious, 
Sir  Walter  Scott  an  Example, 

255 
256 

207 

213 

214 

Physical  and  Mental  Educa- 
tion of  Youth,  . 

258 

216 

Consequences  of  confined  Posi- 
tion of  Females  at  School, 

259 

Remarks  of  Dr.  Combe, 

260 

216 

Remarks  of  Dr.  Dick,    • 

263 

216 

Callisthenics,         .        .     „  . 

266 

217 

266 

Selection  of  Bows  and  Ar- 

218 

rows, 

268 

221 

General  Considerations  with 

respect  to  Health  and  Dis- 

223 

272 

226 

Small-Pox,     .... 

274 

227 

Fever  and  Ague,    . 

274 

228 
228 

Anson's  and  Cook's  Voyages, 
Spanish  Squadron, 
Cook's  Second  Voyage, 

275 
276 
277 

Precautions  with  Respect  to 

231 

Youth,        .... 

280 

231 

Predisposition  to  Consumption, 
Exercise  of  the  Lungs, 

280 
282 

232 

APPENDIX. 

233 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ATTI- 

TUDES,       .... 

286 

234 

Standing, 

285 

235 

The  Foot,      . 

287 

236 
237 

Walking, 
Pedestnanism, 

292 
290 

Sitting,   . 

290 

238 
.238 

Causes  of  Spinal  Curvatures, 
Sitting  Postures  described, 

291 
293 

Leaning  Posture,   . 

294 

239 

Dress  a  Source  of  Deformity, 
Fashionable  Deformity, 

296 
297 

240 

Effects  of  Pressure  on  the  Mus- 

cles of  the  Back, 

298 

241 

Application  of  these  Princi- 

100 

242 

Effects  of  Tight  Lacing  on 

243 

the  Lungs, 

304 

245 

Pulmonary    Consumption    in 
Consequence  of  Pressure  on 

the  Lungs,          .        .        . 

307 

247 

Dr.  Morton's  Case, 

309 

247 
247 

Mortality  by  Consumption,  . 
Prevention  of  Spinal  Distor- 

312 

247 

tion,    

312 

250 
252  ) 

Effects  of  Stays  on  the  Vigor 
of  the  Species,    . 

318 

Books  consulted  with  reference  to  this  Work. 

Arnott's  Elements  of  Physics. 

Bostock's  Physiology,  3  vols.,  London. 

Blumenback's  Physiology. 

Magendie's  Physiology,  Edinburgh. 

Dunglisson's  Physiology. 

Library  of  Useful  Knowledge. 

Cuvier's  Animal  kingdom,  4  vols. 

Combe  on  Health  and  Mental  Education. 

Ticknor  on  the  Philosophy  of  Living. 

Bingley's  Animal  Kingdom,  4  vols.,  London. 

Parkinson's  Organic  Remains.     London. 

Roget's  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology,  2  vols.,  London. 

Fyfe's  Anatomy  4  vols.,  London. 

Bell's  Anatomy,  2  vols. 

Hooper's  Medical  Dictionary. 

Spallanzani's  Dissertations  on  Natural  History,  2  vols.,  London. 

Brown's  Book  of  Butterflies,  2  vols.,  London. 

Combe  on  the  Physical  Constitution  of  Man. 

Dick's  Christian  Philosopher. 

Dick's  Mental  Illumination. 

Alcott's  House  I  live  in. 

Bell  on  the  Hand. 

Letters  on  Entomology.     London. 

Lizar's  Plates  of  the  Human  System,  folio,  London. 

Beaumont  on  Digestion. 

Kirby's  History  of  Habits  of  Insects.    ' 

Shaw  on  Dislocations  of  the  Spine.    London. 

Jardine's  Library  of  Natural  History.     Edinburgh. 

Natural  History  of  Insects,  2  vols.     [Harpers'  Family  Library.] 

Rennie's  History  of  Insects.  3  vols. 

Hayward's  Outlines  of  Human  Physiology. 

Morton's  Illustrations  of  Consumptive  Diseases. 

Kitchiner's  Invalid's  Oracle.     [Family  Library.] 

Habits  of  Birds.     [Library  of  Entertaining  Knowledge],  London 

Willich's  Lectures  on  Diet  and  Regimen. 

Brewster's  Letters  on  Natural  Magic. 

Bichat  on  Life  and  Death. 

Rennie's  Alphabet  of  Insects.     London. 

Barry  on  Digestion.    London. 

Ure's  Chemical  Dictionary. 


ANIMAL    PHYSIOLOGY 


THE  term  PHYSIOLOGY,  signifies  "  a  discourse  on  Nature," 
smd  hence  is  applicable  to  an  explanation  of  the  laws 
which  govern  the  growth  of  vegetables,  and  the  crystalliza- 
tion of  minerals,  as  well  as  to  a  discourse  on  the  functions 
of  animal  life. 

Animal  Physiology  is  divided  into  two  distinct  depart- 
ments, namely,  comparative  and  human.  Comparative 
physiology,  is  a  discourse  or  treatise  on  the  corporeal  func- 
tions of  the  inferior  animals.  Human  physiology  explains 
the  corresponding  i^etions  of  man. 

In  pursuing  the  subject  of  animal  physiology,  the  student 
will  constantly  be  reminded  that  nothing  has  been  left  un- 
done, even  to  the  minutest  detail,  which  could  in  any  way 
advance  the  welfare  and  comfort  of  living  existences,  taken 
as  a  whole.  On  the  contrary,  he  will  find  that  each 
animal  is  placed  in  a  situation  most  congenial  to  its  own 
organization  and  capacities,  and  that  it  is  provided  with 
instruments,  and  endowed  with  senses  and  capabilities  ex- 
actly befitting  the  condition  in  which  it  is  placed.  The 
earthworm,  for  instance,  has  no  use  for  eyes,  since  it  never 
voluntarily  comes  to  the  light ;  nor  for  hands  or  wings, 
since  these  would  be  worse  than  useless  in  the  place  and 
manner  of  its  existence.  Nor  has  the  fish  any  use  for 
lungs  or  feet,  since  its  organization  prevents  it  from  breath- 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  physiology?  How  is  animal  physiol- 
ogy divided  ?  What  is  said  of  the  adaptation  of  the  organs  and  capacities 
of  animals  to  their  wants  ? 


10  ANB&LAL   PHYSIOLOGY. 

ing  the  air  or  walking  on  the  earth.  On  the  contrary, 
sight,  instruments  for  rising  in  the  air,  and  for  walking  on 
the  earth,  are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  higher  orders  of 
animals,  otherwise  they  would  be  unable  to  accomplish  the 
ends  for  which  they  wrere  created. 

The  student  will  also  be  able  to  notice,  that  the  Creator 
has  employed  the  strictest  economy  with  respect  to  animal 
organization,  every  individual  being  in  possession  of  all 
the  instruments  and  means  with  which  to  accomplish  the 
ends  of  its  creation,  but  no  more.  No  superfluous  organs 
are  bestowed  on  an)",  even  of  the  favorites  of  nature,  but 
always  a  sufficiency  for  every  destined  purpose,  both  with 
respect  to  number  and  power. 

In  the  details  of  the  habits  and  physiological  functions 
of  some  of  the  lower  orders  of  insects,  the  pupil  will 
probably  often  find  himself  greatly  excited  by  curiosity, 
but  it  is  hoped  that  he  will  not  therefore  neglect  or  forget 
the  chief  design  of  this  work,  which  is  to  bring  him  to  the 
acknowledgment  and  adoration  of  a  Great  First  Cause,  by 
making  him  acquainted  with  the  mechanism  and  functions 
of  his  animated  creation. 


What  is  said  with  respect  to  the  economy  employed  in  animal  organi- 
zation? 


PART   I. 


MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS 


1.  THE  lowest  orders  of  the  animal  creation  possess 
neither  bones,  nerves,  sight,  nor  hearing.  Some  of  them 
are  fixed,  while  others  have  the  power  of  locomotion, 
though  they  possess  neither  eyes  nor  ears  to  direct  them  in 
their  movements. 

2.  Some  of  the  medusa  tribes  can  hardly  claim  the  rank 
of  organized  beings,  appearing  when  alive  like  a  trans- 
parent jelly,  and  when  dead  leaving  nothing  but  a  lim- 
pid watery  fluid  into  which  they  dissolve  by  decomposi- 
tion. 

3.  The  sponges  have  no  higher  place  as  animal  exist- 
ences, being  fixed  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  having  no 
sensation  and  no  motion,  except  that  by  which  they  obtain 
their  food. 

4.  Many  other  orders,  as  the  hydra,  vorticella,  and  in- 
fusoria, are  but  little  removed  from  these  in  organization 
or  capacity.     Some  of  these  tribes  are  so  little   above 
vegetables  in  their  organization,  that  they  may  be  pre- 
served like  the  seeds  of  plants.     The    rotifer,  or  wheel 
animal,  which  lives  and  moves  in  water,  may  be  taken 
out  and  dried,  when  it  appears  like  a  grain  of  dust,  and 
may  so  be  kept  for  any  length  of  time.     But  if  placed 
in  a  drop  of  water  it  soon  shows  its  vitality  by  its  brisk 
voluntary  motion,  and  this  alternate  life  and  death  the 


What  is  said  of  the  senses  of  the  lowest  orders  of  animals  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  medusa?  What  is  said  of  the  sponges?  What  is  said  of  the 
rotifer  or  wheel  animal  ? 


12  MECHANICAL  FUNCTIONS. 

little  animal  passes  through  any  number  of  times  without 
injury.  In  like  manner  the  gordius,  a  worm  resembling 
a  horse-hair,  which  inhabits  stagnant  pools,  may  be  dried, 
when  it  has  no  more  signs  of  life  than  a  piece  of  wire, 
and  again  revived  to  life  by  immersion  in  water.  This 
animal  is  supposed  by  many  to  have  derived  its  exist- 
ence from  a  horse-hair  accidentally  falling  into  the 
water.  But  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  such  mis- 
takes call  for  a  more  general  knowledge  of  animal  Phys- 
iology. 

5.  We  shall  begin  our  physiological  descriptions  with 
the  most  simple  organizations,  and  gradually  passing 
through  those  which  are  more  and  more  complex,  finally 
come  to  that  of  our  own  species. 


SPONGE. 

6.  The  remains  of  this  animal  are  in  such  universal  use, 
and  consequently  so  well  known,  as  to  require  no  general 
description.     It   belongs   to    an   order  of  animals  called 
zoophytes,  which    also   includes  the  corals,   the    polypi, 
and  several  other  races  which  are  only  a   single  grade 
above  vegetables.     This  order  indeed  appears  to  be  the 
connecting  link  between  the  animal  and  vegetable  king- 
doms.    The  term  zoophytes  signifies  "  animated  plants." 

7.  The  sponges  of  which  there  are  many  species,  are 
all  marine  animals,  living  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  where 
they  are  firmly  attached  to  rocks  and  stones. 

8.  These  productions  in  general  appearance  much  more 
nearly  resemble  plants  than  animals ;  but  in  their  internal 
organization  and  structure  they  diifer  entirely  from  vegeta- 
bles.    Their  animal  nature  is  clearly  shown  by  chemical 
analysis,  and  by  the  voluntary  motion  of  some  of  their 
parts  which  resemble  respiration. 

9.  Every  part  of  the  surface  of  a  living  sponge  presents 
to  the  eye  two  kinds  of  orifices ;  the  larger   having  a 
rounded  shape,  and  generally  a  little  raised  on  the  mar- 


What  is  said  of  the  gordius?  To  what  order  of  animals  does  the  sponge 
belong?  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  zoophytes  ?  How  is  the  animal 
nature  of  the  sponge  indicated  ?  What  is  said  concerning  the  orifices  of 
the  living  sponge  ? 


SPONGB  13 


gins ;  the  smaller  are  much  more  minute,  running  in  all 
directions,  and  constituting  what  are  termed  the  pores  of 
the  sponge. 

Fig.  1. 


10.  The  structure  of  the  living  sponge    is  shown  by 
Fig.  1,  where  it  will  be  observed  that  the  larger  orifices 
are  much  more  conspicuous  than  in  the  dead  one,  these 
elevated  parts  being  usually    almost   obliterated   by   the 
death  of  the  animal,  and  by  pressure  in  packing  it  for 
market. 

11.  From  these  orifices,  Dr.  Grant  has  discovered  that 
in  the  living  sponge  there  is  a  constant  stream  of  the  fluid 
in  which  the  animal  is  immersed.     A  small  piece  of  liv- 
ing sponge    being  placed  in  a  watch-crystal  filled  with 
sea-water,    and     the  whole  placed    under  a  microscope, 
Dr.    Grant   perceived   some   motion    among   the   opaque 
particles  of  the  fluid.      "  On  moving  the   watch-glass," 
says  he,   "  so  as  to  bring  one  of  the  orifices  on  the  side  of 
the  sponge  fully  into  view,  I  beheld,  for  the  first  time, 
the  splendid  spectacle  of  this  living    fountain,  •  vomiting 
forth,   from  a  circular   cavity,   an   impetuous   torrent   of 
liquid   matter,    and    hurling    along,   in    rapid   succession, 
opaque   masses,  which  were  strewed  everywhere  around. 
The  beauty  and  novelty  of  such  a  scene,  in  the  animal 
kingdom,  long   arrested  my   attention,  but  after  twenty- 
five  minutes  of  constant  observation,  I    was   obliged   to 
withdraw  my  eye  from  fatigue,  without  having  seen  the 
torrent  for  one  instant  change  its  direction,  or  diminish, 
in  the  slightest  degree,  the  rapidity  of  its  course.     I  con- 


What  was  the  experiment  by  which  Dr.  Grant  proved  that  sponge  is  ail 


14  MECHANICAL  FUNCTIONS. 

tinued  to  watch  the  same  orifice,  at  short  intervals  for 
five  hours,  sometimes  observing  it  for  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  at  a  time,  but  still  the  stream  rolled  on  with  a  con- 
stant and  equal  velocity." 

12.  The  water  thus  poured  forth  in  a  perpetual  stream 
from  these  apertures,  is  received  through  the  millions  of 
pores  which  pervade  the  sponge  in  every  direction,  and 
by  this  means  it  is  that  the  animal  is  nourished.     Even 
fish  of  several  pounds  weight  will  live  for  weeks,  or  per- 
haps months,  upon  no  other  nourishment  than  what  is  con- 
tained in  sea-water,  so  that  the  sustenance  of  the  sponge 
by  such  means  presents  nothing,  uncommon. 

13.  The  mechanism  by  which  these  currents  of  water 
are  constantly  produced,  is  involved  in  obscurity.     It  is, 
however,  supposed  to  consist  of  cilia,  or  small  hairs  lining 
the  inner  surfaces  of  the  tubes,  the  motions  of  which  propel 
the  water  through  them. 

14.  These  currents  are  readily  made  apparent  by  pla- 
cing the  living  animal  in  a  shallow  vessel  of  sea-water,  and 
strewing  a  little  powdered  chalk  on  the  surface,  the  mo- 
tions of  which  makes  that  of  the  water  plainly  visible,  as 
shown  in  the  figure. 

15.  Manner  in  which  the  young  sponges  are  dissemi- 
nated.    In  all  parts  of  creation,  whether  in  the  vegetable 
or  animal  kingdoms,  there  is  provided  effectual  means  for 
the  dissemination  of  the  species.     (For  an  account  of  the 
dissemination  of  the  seeds  of  plants,  see  the  author's  Intro- 
duction to  Botany.)     For  the  distribution  of  the  sponges, 
the  method  provided  is  singularly  curious  and  interesting, 
and  at  the  same  time  displays,  in  a  most  striking  manner, 
the  care  which  the  Creator  has  taken  to  perpetuate  his 
most  humble  works. 

16.  On  examining  certain  parts  of  the  sponge,  which, 
when   living   and   wet,  are   nearly  transparent,  there   is 
found  a  multitude  of  yellow,  opaque  spots,  visible  to  the 
naked  eye.     These,  when  examined  with  a  microscope, 


Whence  comes  the  water  which  is  poured  forth  from  these  apertures  ? 
How  does  the  sponge  obtain  its  nourishment?  By  what  means  is  it 
supposed  the  current  through  the  apertures  are  produced?  How  are 
the  currents  made  Apparent  ?  In  what  manner  are  the  voung  sponges 
distributed? 


POLYPIFERA. 


are  ascertained  to  be  the  eggs,  or  gemmules  of  the  fu- 
ture animal.  In  a  few  months  they  enlarge  in  size,  and 
assume  an  oval,  or  pear-shaped  form,  and  Fig.  2. 
are  covered  with  cilia,  or  hairs,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  2.  They  then  become  detached 
from  the  parent,  one  after  another,  and 
float  or  swim  along  with  the  current,  always 
carrying  their  broad  and  rounded  extremity 
forward.  While  thus  suspended  in  the 
water,  the  cilia,  with  which  they  are  cover- 
ed, are  in  rapid  and  perpetual  motion,  giving  them  a 
slow  impulse  forward.  In  these  movements  if  they 
strike  against  each  other,  or  meet  with  any  other  im- 
pediment, they  avoid  the  difficulty  as  other  animals  do, 
by  turning  aside  and  then  proceeding  in  their  former 
course.  In  some  instances  when  two  of  these  little 
animals  happen  to  meet,  they  adhere  to  each  other,  and 
in  a  few  days  no  line  of  distinction  can  be  observed  be- 
tween them,  the  two  being  united  into  one  individual, 
and  so  continue  to  grow  during  the  rest  of  their  lives. 
This  union  appears  to  be  analogous  to  that  of  engraft- 
ing in  plants,  only  with  respect  to  the  young  sponges  it 
is  voluntary. 

17.  After  leaving  the  parent,  these  little  animals  float 
about  for  a  day  or  two,  when  finding  a  suitable  place,  they 
fix  themselves  firmly  to  a  stone  or  rock,  and  there  gradu- 
ally increase  to  the  adult  size,  and  in  their  turn  send  forth 
their  progeny  as  above  described. 

18.  These  facts,  of  course,  could  only  have  been  ascer- 
tained by  placing  the  parent-sponge  in  a  vessel  of  sea- 
water.     Many  of  these  observations  were  made  in  vessels 
no  larger  than  watch-crystals. 


POLYPIFERA. 


19.  The   term  polypifera   is  the  name  of  the   order, 
and  means  animals  bearing  polypi.     The  name  polypus 


In  what  manner  do  they  move  through  the  water?  What  is  said  of 
the  union  of  two  of  these  animals  into  one?  What  does  this  union  ap- 
pear to  be  analogous  to?  What  becomes  of  the  young  sponges  after 
being  detached  from  their  parents?  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term 
polypifera? 


36  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

denotes  a  mass  of  these  animals,  and  polype,  a  single 
animal. 

20.  This  order  embraces  many  species  of  very  simple 
animals,  chiefly  inhabiting  salt  water.     Some  of  them  are 
exceedingly  minute,  while  others  are  several  inches  in 
length. 

21.  Each  of  these  curious  animals  is  formed  of  a  tube, 
attached  by  its  lower  end  to   some  solid  substance,  the 
upper    end   being    surrounded    by   a    number   of  flexible 
fibres,  or  arms,  called  tentacula.     These  tentacula  radi- 
ate from  a  common  centre,  in   the  midst  of  which  is  the 
mouth  of  the   animal.      A  single  polype  is  represented 
by  Fig.  3.     The  tentacula  are  eight  in  number,     Fig-  3. 
but  in  some  species  are  much   more   numerous. 

The  arrangement  of  these,  on  the  margin  of  the 
mouths  of  the  animals,  bears  a  considerable  re- 
semblance to  a  flower  with  radiating  petals,  as 
the  daisy  and  aster. 

22.  Polypi  for  the  most  part  reside  in  cells,  or 

tubes,  composed  of  horny  or  alcareous  matter,  in  the 
form  of  sheaths,  which  enclose  the  body  of  the  animal, 
leaving  the  tentacula  and  mouths  free  for  action  above 
their  margins.  Sometimes  these  tubes  are  joined  to- 
gether endwise,  like  the  branches  of  a  Fl£;  4- 
tree,  leaving  lateral  apertures  for  the  pro- 
tusion  of  the  tentacula  of  each  animal, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  4.  In  this  figure  each 
bundle  of  radiating  fibrils  along  the 
branches  represents  the  tentacula  of  a 
polype. 

23.  The  well-known  marine  substance 
called    coral  is  the   product   of  the  la- 
bors of  certain  species  of  these   indus- 
trious   animals.       A    great    number    of 

species  are  perpetually  employed  in  the  construction  of 
different  varieties  of  this  substance.  Coral  is  composed 
of  calcareous  particles,  with  a  portion  of  animal,  and 
occasionally  coloring  matter  elaborated  into  a  solid,  or 
porous  form,  by  these  animals. 


What  does  polype  mean?  Polypus?  Polypi?  Describe  a  polype? 
What  are  teutacula?  What  common  flowers  do  these  animals  resemble  ? 
What  does  Fig.  4  represent? 


POLYPIFERA. 


17 


Fig.  6. 


24.  A  branch  of  red  coral  is  represent-          Fis- 
ed  by  Fig.  5,  with  the  little  animals  at 

work  on  it. 

25.  Fig.  6  is   a   part  of  one  of  these 
branches    magnified,   and    showing    the 
tentacula  expanded,  as  when  the  animal 
is  under  water  ;  and  also  in  the  contract- 
ed state,  as  when  the  branch  is  removed 
from  the  fluid. 

26.  These  structures  are  fixed  perma- 
nently to  stones  or  rocks  at  the  bottom 
of  the  ocean,  which  in  warm  climates 
are  often  covered  with  them  to  a  great 
extent. 

27.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  these 
fixed  zoophytes  are   multiplied  like   the 
sponge  by  gemmules,  in  the  manner  simi- 
lar to  that  already  described. 

28.  The  mechanism  by  which  some  species  of  polypi 
produce   a  constant  current  of  water  toward  their  mouths, 
is  so  curious,  that  we  should  not  do  justice  to  this  subject 
without  describing  it. 

29.  When  the  tentacula  are  expanded,  small  particles 
in  the  water  may  be  observed  constantly  tending  toward 
the  mouths  of  these  animals.     This  motion  of  the  water  is 
not  produced  by  the  motion  of  the  tentacula  themselves, 
but  is  the  effect  of  the  rapid  vibration  of  minute  cilia  placed 
along  their  sides. 

30.  In  the  species  calledflustra  carbacea,  the  tentacula 
in  each  polype  are  twenty-two  in  number,  and  along  the 
lateral  margins  of  each,  there  Fig.  7.  Fig,  8. 
is  a  single  row  of  cilia  extend- 
ing from  the  base  to  the  ter- 
mination. .    This  animal  is  rep- 
resented   in    the     posture    of 

forming  the  current  by  Fig.  7.  f§/, 

Fig.  8  is  a  portion  of  a  tenta- 
cula highly  magnified,  to  show 
the  cilia,  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  current  is  produ- 
ced. From  the  positions  in 

2* 


18  MECHANICAL   FT/NOTIONS 

which  the  cilia  stand,  it  will  be  observed  that  their  mo- 
tions are  ascending  on  the  one  side,  and  descending  on 
the  other.  By  these  contrary  motions,  the  water  would 
be  carried  around  the  tentacular  in  a  longitudinal  direc- 
tion, provided  it  was  detached.  But  many  of  them  being 
placed  around  the  mouth  of  the  polype,  with  the  motions 
of  the  cilia  on  the  outside  ascending,  and  those  on  the 
inside  descending,  it  is  obvious  that  the  effect  is  to  pro- 
duce a  perpetual  current  of  the  fluid  to  the  mouth  of  the 
animal,  and  as  the  polype  subsists  on  minute  insects,  and 
particles  of  decomposing  matter  which  it  takes  from  the 
water,  this  wonderful  mechanism  is  evidently  designed  to 
bring  food  to  its  mouth. 

31.  The  vibrations  of  these  cilia,  when  the  animal  is 
vigorous,  are  too  rapid  to  be  distinguished  by  the  eye, 
even  when  assisted  by  a  microscope  ;  and  it  is  only  when 
it  becomes  languid,  and  the  motions  diminished,  that  they 
can  be  -seen.     But  the  effect  can  be  discovered  by  the 
naked   eye,  by  the  motions  of  floating  particles  in   the 
water. 

HYDRA. 

32.  To    the  zoophytic  order  belong  another   tribe  of 
animals  called  hydra,  which,  on  some  accounts,  are  the 
most  singular  and  curious  productions  of  nature.     This 
animal  consists  of  a  stomach  with  tentacula  for  catching 
its  food,  and  nothing  more.      It  exhibits  not  a  trace  of 
either  brain,  nerves,  or  organs  of  sense  of  any  kind  ;  nor 
is  there  any  parts  corresponding  to  lungs,  heart,  arteries, 
or  veins,  or  any  other  vessels  whatever ;  all  those  organs 
so  essential  to  the  existence  of  other  animals,  being  en- 
tirely wanting. 

33.  Mr.  Trembley,  of  Geneva,  who  watched  the  actions 
of  these  animals  with  unwearied   patience,  for"  days  to- 
gether, has  given  the  following  curious  account  of  what  he 
discovered. 


What  ornamental  substance  is  made  by  polypi?  What  is  composi- 
tion of  coral?  In  what  manner  are  polypi  multiplied?  Explain  Figs.  7 
and  8.  In  what  manner  do  polypi  produce  a  constant  current  of  water 
toward  their  mouths?  What  purpose  does  this  current  answer  to  the 
animal?  What  parts  pertaining  to  other  animals  are  wanting  in  the 
hydra? 


HYDRA, 


19 


34  The  hydra  are  fresh-water  animals  of  very  diminu- 
tive size,  and  are  generally  fixed  to  some  solid  body,  as 
a  stick  or  leaf,  by  the  tail,  though  they  have  the  power 
of  detaching  themselves,  and  of  moving  slowly  through 
the  water.  They  are  carnivorous  animals,  and  though 
they  do  not  chase  their  prey,  they  devour  all  kinds  of  liv- 
ing creatures  coming  within  reach  of  their  tentacula, 
which  they  can  manage.  Worms  longer  than  themselves 
they  devour,  by  first  doubling  them  together  by  means  of 
their  long  arms. 

35.  A  hydra  in  the  act  of  gorging  a 
worm  of  twice  its  own  size,  is  seen  at 
Fig.  9.     The  poor  worm  is  completely 
entangled  within  the  folds  of  the  tentacu- 
la, while  the  voracious  animal,  with  ex- 
panded mouth,  is  absorbing  its  juices,  so  as  to  bring  it  with- 
in the  capacity  of  himself. 

36.  It  sometimes  happens  that  when  two  of  these  ani- 
mals have  seized  the  same  worm  by  different  ends,  a  vio- 
lent  struggle   ensues   between   them,   and   the   stronger, 
having  gained  the  victory,  not  only  swallows  the  object  of 
contention,  but  his  antagonist  along  with  it.       F-    1Q 
Fig.  10  represents  such  a  case,  the  tail  of  the 
swallowed  animal  protruding  from  the  mouth 

of  the  victor.  But  the  former  soon  extricates 
himself  from  this  dilemma,  without  having  suf- 
fered the  least  injury,  and  indeed  is  often  the 
gainer,  by  retaining  a  portion  of  the  object  of 
contention  to  himself. 

37.  But  the  most  singular,  and  indeed,  astonishing  facts, 
which  Mr.  Trembley  ascertained  with  respect  to  these  ani- 
mals, are,  that  they  1mn±e  the  power  of  repairing  all  sorts 
of  injuries  and  mutilations  inflicted  on  them,  and  of  still 
digesting  their  food,  and  of  recovering  a  good  degree  of 
health  after  being  turned  wrong  side  out. 

38.  If  their  tentacula  be  clipped  off  they  soon  grow  again. 
If  the  animal  be  cut  in  two,  across  the  middle,  there  will 
sprout   forth   a   new   head   from   one   part,  and    a   new 
tail  from  the  other,  together  with  such  portions   of  the 
body  in  each  case  as  were  wanted  to  make  a  good  and 

What  is  said  of  the  power  of  the  hydra  to  reproduce  mutilations  * 


20  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

complete  animal.  If  the  head  of  the  hydra  and  a  por- 
tion of  the  body  be  divided  by  a  longitudinal  section, 
the  animal  is  thereby  the  gainer,  for  the  divided  parts 
form  t^'o  b-ods  instead  of  one.  with  complete  sets  of 
tentacula  for  each  mouth,  and  thus  he  can  enjoy  the  sat- 
isfaction of  eating  with  two  mouths  at  the  same  time. 
If  the  head  be  split  into  half  a  dozen  parts,  each  part 
will  form  a  new  head  with  mouth  and  tentacula  to  match, 
the  whole  being  united  to  one  body.  Fig  n 

Fig.  11  represents  a  seven-headed  mon- 
ster, the  result  of  several  mutilations 
and  divisions  of  one  of  these  protean 
creatures. 

39.  Sometimes  of  its  own  accord  a  hy- 
dra will  split  in  two  parts  lengthwise,  each 

division  becoming  independent  of  the  other,  and  growing 
to  the  same  size,  and  attaining  the  same  organs  as  the 
original  animal. 

40.  Mr.  Trembley  also  found  that  any  portion  of  one 
hydra  might  be  engrafted  on  another,  in  the  same  man- 
ner that  pieces  of  India-rubber  may  be  joined,  that  is,  by 
cutting  their  surfaces  and  pressing  them  together.    By  this 
means  they  would  unite  and  become  a  compound  animal. 
Thus  many  heads  may  be  united  to  one  body,  or  many 
bodies  to  one  head  ;  and  so,  on  the  contrary,  when  one 
hydra  is  introduced  into  the  mouth  of  another,  so  that 
their  heads  are  kept  in  contact,  for  a  time,  they  unite  and 
become  one  individual  animal. 

41.  Even  the  figures  of  other  animals,  as  quadrupeds,  or 
man,  might  be  constructed  in  this  manner,  though  every- 
where covered  with  moving  tentacula. 


PENNATUL.E. 

42.  Another  form  under  which  polypi  exist,  is  that  call- 
ed pennatidce.     This  is  called   sea-pen,  from  its  resem- 

How  many  parts  of  these  animals  may  be  engrafted  upon  each  other* 
Give  some  account  of  the  pennatulae. 


PENNATmJK 


21 


Fig.  12. 

blance  to  a  quill.  It 
consists  of  a  calcareous 
stem,  the  upper  end  of 
which  has  a  series  of 
branches  on  each  side, 
resembling  the  filaments 
of  a  feather,  and  in  the 
end  of  each  of  which 
resides  an  animal,  the 
whole  being  represented 
by  Fig.  12.  Some  of  the 
polypi  are  seen  magnified 
m  Fig.  13. 

43.  These  animals   are  not  fixed  like  those  we  have 
described,  but  float  along  with  the  currents  of  the  ocean, 
having  little  or  perhaps  no  power  of  locomotion,  though 
the  movements  of  their  tentacula  are  sufficient  to  prevent 
their  sinking,  and  to  enable  them  to  rise  slowly  in  the 
water. 

44.  The  pennatulse  must  be  considered  as  a  mass  of.  dis- 
tinct animals  aggregated  together  to  form,  in  many  respects, 
one  individual.     In  Botany,  the  class  syngenesia  presents 
many  distinct  flowers  assembled  together  to  form  a  single 
compound  individual,  as  the  thistle  and  dandelion,  each 
individual  being  on  the  same  receptacle,  and  supported 
by  the  same   stem.     So  far,  therefore  as  aggregation  is 
concerned,  there  is  a  strict  analogy  between  a  compound 
flower  and  the   pennatulse.     But    while  each   individual 
of    the    syngenesian    flowers    receives    its    nourishment 
through   the  same   stem,  the  corresponding  part  of  the 
compound  animal,  which  is  a  common  stomach,  receives 
its  nourishment  through  hundreds  of  mouths,  so  that  here 
the  analogy  fails. 

45.  In  the  pennatulae,  each  mouth  leads  into  a  separate 
stomach,  whence   the   food,  after   digestion,  passes    into 
several    channels,  which   proceed    in  different  directions 
from   the   cavity  of   each   stomach,  dividing   into   many 
branches,  and  being  distributed  over  all  the  surrounding 
portions  of  flesh.     These  branches  communicate  with  sim- 
ilar channels  proceeding  from  the  neighboring  stomachs ; 

What  is  said  of  the  stomach  of  the  pennatulae  ? 


XX  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

so  that  the  food  which  has  been  taken  in  by  one  of  the 
mouths,  contributes  to  the  general  nourishment  of  the 
whole  mass  of  aggre-  Fig.  14. 

gated  polypi.  These 
curious  facts  were  dis- 
covered by  Cuvier, 
and  are  represented 
by  Fig.  14,  where  the 
stomachs  of  the  three 
polypi,  with  their  ten- 

tacula  spread  out,  are  seen  communicating  at  their  lower 
extremities  with  a  canal,  which  thus,  becomes  a  common 
stomach  to  the  whole  colony. 


INFUSORIA. 

46.  The  infusory  insects,  or  infusoria,  were  so  named 
from  the  circumstance,  that  they  always  appear  during  the 
warm  seasons,  in  water  in  which  vegetable  or  animal  sub- 
stances have  been  infused.     Hence  they  exist  in  stagnant 
ditches  and  pools  of  water,  everywhere  during  the  summer 
and  autumn.     These  animals  are  generally  too  minute  to 
be  distinguished  by  the  naked  eye,  and  therefore  it  is  to 
microscopic  observations  that  we  owe  our  knowledge  of 
their  existence  and  habits. 

47.  Former  writers  on  natural  history,  have  called  these 
animalcula,  monads,  and  have  regarded  them  as  occupying 
the  very  lowest  rank  of  animal  creation.     Some  have  even 
expressed  doubts  whether  they  really  belong  to  the  animal 
kingdom ;  but  would  rather  consider  them  as  molecules,  or 
the  elementary  particles  of  organic  beings,  separated  from 
each  other  by  chemical  decomposition,  but  retaining  the 
power  of  voluntary  motion. 

48.  The  infusoria,  during  the  last  century,  have  been 
the  object  of  very  laborious   microscopical  research ;  no 
naturalist  considering  himself  accomplished  until  he  had 
spent  a  considerable   portion  of  time    in   observing  the 
motions  and  studying  the  characters  of  these  animated 
particles.      Many    theories,    conjectures,    and     disputes, 

Whence  do  the  infusoria  derive  their  name  ?    What  was   the   former 
name  for  infusoria? 


INFUSORIA.  XO 

arose  in  consequence  of  such  observations;  some  con- 
tending that  monads  were  merely  living  globules  wit  - 
out  animal  organization,  but  capable  of  uniting  into  ani- 
mated masses,  and  thus  of  forming  the  flesh  and  blood 
of  organized  creatures.  According  to  this  doctrine,  all 
other  animals,  including  us,  human  beings,  are  nothing 
more  than  great  congregations  of  monads.  That  great 
naturalist,  Buffon,  was  the  author  of  this  hypothesis,  and 
therefore  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  it  had  many 
profound  advocates.  It  would  neither  interest  nor  in- 
struct the  student  in  physiology  to  give  a  detail  of  other 
opinions  concerning  these  living  motes,  since  the  more 
perfect  microscopes  of  later  philosophers  have  shown 
that  these  animals  are  regularly  and  carefully  organized, 
having  not  only  a  stomach,  but  such  other  organs  as  fit 
them  for  their  station  in  life. 

49.  Wheel  Minimal. — The  rotifera,  or  wheel  animalcula, 
is  one  of  the  infusoria  race,  though  F'g-  I5- 

larger  than  the  monad.  Fig.  15  rep- 
resents an  animal  of  this  order,  mag- 
nified 380  times  its  natural  size.  Its 
name  is  derived  from  -the  apparatus 
which  it  possesses  for  creating  a  cir- 
cular current  in  the  water.  The  or- 
gans by  which  this  effect  is  produced 
are  two  in  number,  and  are  seen  at 
the  top  of  the  figure.  They  are  situ- 
ated on  the  head,  but  do  not  surround 
the  mouth,  like  the  tentacula  of  the 
polypi.  They  consist  of  circular  disks, 
the  margins  of  which  are  fringed  with 
rows  of  cilia,  bearing  a  resemblance  to  a  crown  wheel 
in  machinery.  These  wheels  appear  to  be  incessantly 
revolving,  and  generally  in  one  direction,  giving  to  the 
fluid  a  rotary  impulse,  which  carries  it  around  in  a  con- 
tinual vortex.  The  constancy  of  this  motion  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  it  is  as  necessary  to  the  life  of  the 
animal  as  respiration  is  to  the  higher  orders ;  the  revolu- 

What  was  the  opinion  of  Buffon  with*respect  to  monads  ?  What 
peculiarity  do  the  rotifera  exhibit  ?  Is  the  revolution  of  the  wheel  of  the 
rotifera  real,  or  only  apparent' 


24  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

tions  never  ceasing  so  long  as  the  animal  is  alive.  This 
motion,  when  considered  merely  with  respect  to  the 
mechanism  by  which  it  is  produced,  cannot  but  excite 
intense  curiosity ;  for  we  have  no  analogy  in  the  organi- 
zation ef  any  other  animal  with  which  to  compare  it, 
nor  from  all  we  'know  on  the  subject  should  we  believe 
it  possible  that  a  circular  motion  of  a  part  of  an  animal 
could  be  continued  for  any  length  of  time  in  the  same 
direction.  What  animal  or  other  substance  will  with- 
stand perpetual  twisting  in  one  direction?  and  yet  if 
there  is  no  deception  with  respect  to  the  revolutions  of 
these  wheels,  one  would  be  led  to  suppose  such  a  sub- 
stance. The J  appearance  is  undoubtedly  that  of  a  con- 
stant revolution  of  the  wheel  itself,  but  recent  observers, 
however,  believe  it  to  be  only  apparent,  and  the  decep- 
tion to  be  caused  by  a  peculiar  and  exceedingly  rapid 
motion  of  the  cilia  on  the  margin  of  the  wheels. 

50.  Phy salia,  or  Portuguese  Man-of-War. — This  animal 
greatly  excels  in  size  those  we  have  heretofore  described, 
but  scarcely  ranks  above  them  in  organization ;  its  pow- 
ers of  motion  being  merely  such  as  to  enable  it  to  rise  and 
sink  in  the  water. 

51.  It  consists  of  a  large  air-bladder,  of  perhaps  a  quart 
in  capacity,  which  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  and 
which  serves  it  as  a  sail.     Below  this  there  is  a  bundle 
of  tentacula,  with  a  mouth  and  stomach,  the  whole  ap- 
pearing more  like  an  inorganic  mass  than  a  living  crea- 
ture, Fig.   16.     These  animals  are  Fig.  16. 

very  abundant  in  most  parts  of  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  where  they  appear 
at  a  little  distance  like  so  many 
large  soap  bubbles  floating  along 
before  the  wind,  only  that  they  pre- 
sent the  most  vivid  hues  of  color. 
"  Nothing,  it  is  said,  can  exceed 
the  beauty  of  the  spectacle  pre- 
sented by  a  numerous  fleet  of  these 
animals  quietly  sailing  on  the 
smooth  surface  of  a  tropical  sea. 
Whenever  the  surface  is  ruffled  by 
the  slightest  wind,  they  suddenly 


INFUSORIA. 


25 


absorb  the  air  from  their  viscicles,  and  thus,  becoming  spe- 
cifically heavier  than  the  water,  immediately  disappear  by 
sinking  into  the  depths  of  the  ocean.  By  what  process 
they  effect  the  absorption  and  reproduction  of  the  air  in 
their  bubbles,  yet  remains  to  be  discovered." 

52.  Echinus.— The  shell  or  skeleton  of  this  animal  is 
well  known  under  the  name  of 

sea-urchin,  or  sea-egg,  and  is 
represented  by  Fig.  17.  Its 
form  is  spheroidal,  resembling 
that  of  an  orange.  On  the  out- 
side there  are  a  great  number 
of  tubercles  arranged  in  double 
lines  in  beautiful  symmetry, 
from  the  mouth  downward,  and 
forming  meridian  lines  from  one  pole  of  the  sphere  to  the 
other.  All  of  these  are  little  balls,  smooth,  and  polish- 
ed on  the  outside,  and  which  serve  for  the  articulation 
of  the  basis  of  the  spine,  with  which,  when  alive,  this 
animal  is  covered.  When  examined  by  a  magnifier,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  end  of  the  spine-  has  a  socket  exactly 
fitting  this  ball,  thus  forming  the  ball  and  socket  joint, 
which  has  a  universal  motion.  The  head  of  the  spine  is 
furnished  with  a  capsular  ligament  to  keep  it  in  place,  and 
around  which  are  sets  of  radiating  muscular  fibres,  by 
which  motion  in  all  directions  is  given  it. 

53.  The  shell  is  constructed  of  calcareous  matter,  and  is 
composed  of  oblong  six-sided  plates,   accurately    fitting 
each  other,  and  arranged  in  rows  like  a  mosaic  pave- 
ment, as  seen  by  Fig.  18.     There  is 

ion  by  which  the  globular  shell  of 
the  echinus  is  enlarged  according 
to  the  wants  of  the  internal  ani- 
mal, for  some  species  grow  from 
the  size  of  a  pin's  head,  to  six  or 
eight  inches  in  diameter.  This  is 
accomplished  by  dividing  the  shell 
into  a  great  number  of  six-sided 


wonderful  provis- 
Fig.  18.        Fig.  19. 


How  are  the  spines  of  the  echinus  fitted  to  its  shell?    What  motion 
have  these  spines  ?   In  what  manner  is  the  house  of  the  echinus  enlarged ? 

3 


26  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

pieces,  as  seen  by  the  preceding  figure,  and  of  allowing 
constant  additions  to  be  made  to  the  margins  of  these 
pieces.  In  this  manner  it  is  obvious  that  the  whole  struc- 
ture would  be  enlarged  without  changing  the  shape. 
Fig.  19  shows  the  appearance  of  these  plates  when 
magnified. 

54.  By  employing  his  spines  as  feet,  or  levers,  this  animal 
is  capable  of  making  considerable  progress  along  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sea. 


MOLLUSCA. 

55.  The  mollusca,  as  the  name  signifies,  are  animals 
with  soft  bodies.     They  have  neither  bones,  nor  hard  parts 
corresponding  to  the  bones  of  the  higher  orders  of  animals. 
This  order  includes  all  those  animals  which  live  in  calcare- 
ous habitations,  constructed  by  themselves,  and  so  far  as 
they  are  popularly  known,  are  called  shellfish,  as  the 
oyster,  muscle,  and  clam. 

56.  The  shells  of  the  mollusca  are  formed  either  of  one 
or  of  several  pieces,  which  are  called  valves.     Those  of 
one  piece   are   called  univalves,  those  consisting  of  two 
pieces  are  termed  bivalves,  and  those  of  more  than  two 
pieces  are  multivalves. 

57.  This  order  presents  a  vast  number,  and  variety  of 
individuals,  many  of  which  have  been  minutely  examined, 
and    arranged   into    species,  genera,   and   orders,  forming 
a  distinct  object  of  study,  entitled   the   science   of  CON- 
CHOLOGY.     It  is  proper,  however,  to  state,  that  this  sci- 
ence is  not  founded  on  the  physiology  of  the   animals 
which  inhabit  these  shells,  but  on  the  forms  and  pecu- 
liarities of  the  shells  themselves.     This   arose,   originally, 
from  the  necessity  of  the  case,  for  in  a  great  many  in- 
stances the  shell  is  readily  obtained,  being  cast  upon  the 
seashore,  empty,  while  the  animal  which  inhabited  it  is 
never  seen,  because  while  alive  it  lived  only  in  the  un- 
fathomable depths   of  the  ocean.     But  could  the  classi- 
fication have  been  founded  on  the  animal  organization, 
it  is  obvious  that  this  method  would  be  practicable  only 
to  a  few,  since  the  animals  could  not  be  preserved  foi 

What  docs  the  term  mollusca  signify?     What  are  mollnscus  animals? 


A(.T.IJHAI.A.  27 

any  length  of  time.  Besides,  it  being  the  object  of  the 
conchologist  to  collect,  arrange,  and  preserve  some  of  the 
greatest  beauties  which  nature  has  presented  to  us,  in  the 
form  of  shells,  this  object  could  be  effected  only  by  an 
arrangement  founded  on  the  shells  themselves. 

58.  Without  going  farther  into  the  general  subject  of  this 
order,  we  shall  examine  a  few  individuals  as  types  of  their 
general  organization,  so  far  as  this  is  known. 

ACEPHALA. 

59.  This  term  means  without  head,  and  common  ex- 
amples exist  iii  the  muscle,  oyster,  and  scollop.     These 
are  "bivalve  shells,  the  two  valves  being  united  at  the  back 
by  a  hinge,  and  connected  by  teeth  which  lock  into  each 
other.      Beside   these,   the  two  shells  are  connected  by 

Fisr.  20. 


means  of  a  strong  ligament  in  form  of  a  short  pillar,  a  6, 
represented  in  Fig.  20,  which  are  the  two  valves  of  a  spe- 
cies of  unio,  or  fresh-water  clam.  These  ligaments  are 
very  distinct  in  the  common  species  of  venus,  called  round 
clam,,  seen  in  all  the  fish -markets  of  the  Atlantic  states. 
These  ligaments  hold  the  two  valves  together  with  great 
force,  so  that  when  the  animal  is  alive  it  is  difficult  to 
separate  them  without  a  knife. 

60.  There  is,  also,  in  all  bivalve  shells,  a  cartilage,  gen- 
erally of  a  dark  color,  situated  between  the  two  valves  at 
the  hinge,  the  office  of  which  is  to  force  them  asunder. 


28  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

61.  Now  as  the  nourishment  of  the  animal  requires  that 
the  shell  should  be  kept  open  to  a  small  distance  for  the 
admission  of  the  water,  and  as  its  safety  might  require  it 
to  be  closed  suddenly,  provision  is  made  for  this  action,  by 
a  strong  muscle  passing  from  one  of  the  valves  to  the  other, 
and  by  which  they  are  instantly  brought  together  at  the 
will  of  the  animal. 

62.  Thus  we  see  that  the  Creator  has  furnished  these 
animals   with  every  comfort   and   convenience   which   it 
would  be  possible  fo/  them  to  enjoy  in  the  situation  in 
which  they  are  placed.     A  pair  of  hard  shells  to  protect 
them  —  a  cartilage,  answering  as  a  spring  to  keep  these 
shells  a  little  'open,  to  admit  the  water  from  wrhich  they 
obtain  food  and  air  —  a  ligament,  to  prevent  the  shells 
from  opening  too  widely,  in  which  case  the  sand  and 
mud  would  destroy  the  animal  —  and  a  muscle,  by  which 
he  can  in  an  instant  close  his  doors,  and  become  proof 
against  the  attack  of  the  most  voracious  monsters  of  the 
deep.     When  the  animal  dies,  the  muscular  force  ceases, 
but  the  cartilage  retains  for  some  time  its  elasticity,  and 
the  ligament  continues  its  adhesion  to  the  valves,    and 
from  these  circumstances  it  is  that  we  find  the  shells  cast 
upon  the  shore,  only  open  to  a  certain  distance,  until  after 
the  destruction  of  the  ligament,  when  the  cartilage  throws 
them  quite  open. 

63.  Several  of  the  bivalve  mollusca  have  the  power  of 
giving  themselves  a  considerable  motion,  by  suddenly  clo- 
sing their  shells,  and  thus  forcibly  expelling  the  water  from 
between  them.     The  reaction  of  the  fluid  on  the  temporary 
current  thus  produced,  may  often  be  seen  to  throw  the  shell 
many  inches  in  the  opposite  direction. 

64.  The  common  scollop  contrives  to  give  itself  motion, 
even  on  the  shore,  by  suddenly  and  forcibly  closing  its 
valves ;  one  of  which  striking  against  some  impediment, 
as  a  pebble,  acts  as  a  spring,  and  thus  throws  it  to  a  little 
distance.     It  is  said  that  when  left  by  the  tide,  they  often 
reach  the  water  in  this  way. 

In  bivalve  shells,  when  the  animal  is  alive  how  are  the  shells  kept  open  ? 
What  prevents  them  from  opening  too  widely?  How  are  the  shells  sud- 
denly brought  together?  Why  are  bivalve  shells  generally  found  only 
partly  open  on  the  shore?  In  what  manner  do  some  of  these  animals  give 
themselves  a  sudden  motion  in  the  water  ?  How  is  it  said  the  scollop 
contrives  to  move  on  the  shore  ? 


ACEPHALA.  2& 

65.  The  Cardium. — Other  bivalves  are  furnished  with  an 
instrument    shaped     somewhat 
like  a  foot  and  leg,  with  which  Fig.  21. 

they  give  themselves  a  slow, 
but  continued  motion  through 
the  sand.  The  form  of  this  in- 
strument in  the  cardium  or 
code,  is  shown  by  Fig.  21. 
This  organ  is  a  hard  mass  of 
muscular  fibres,  woven  together 
in  a  very  complex  manner,  and 
capable  of  motion  in  every  di- 
rection. By  retracting,  and  then  forcing  this  instrument 
forward,  a  contrary  motion  is  given  the  shell,  for  the 
same  reason  that  a  boatman  in  shallow  water,  pushes 
his  craft  along  with  an  oar  from  the  stern.  With 
his  foot,  the  cardium  also  contrives  to  bury  himself  to  any 
depth  he  chooses  in  the  sand  or  mud.  For  this  purpose 
the  leg  is  elongated,  and  by  a  sort  of  vermicular  motion  is 
forced  deep  into  the  sand ;  then  turning  up  the  toe,  and 
forming  it  into  a  kind  of  hook,  the  animal  by  an  alternate 
retraction  and  elongation  of  the  leg,  raises  and  depresses 
the  shell,  and  by  the  resistance  of  the  sand  on  the  hook 
.  gradually  draws  the  whole  downward.  By  a  reverse  of 
this  motion,  that  is,  by  first  drawing  up  the  foot,  and  then 
pushing  it  downward  against  the  sand,  the  shell  is  again 
forced  toward  the  surface.  In  this  manner  does  the  car- 
dium bury  itself  in  the  sand,  in  the  course  of  a  minute  or 
two,  to  avoid  danger,  and  as  quickly  emerges  from  its 
hiding-place  when  the  danger  is  past. 

66.  With  an  instrument  similar  to  that  belonging  to  the 
cardium,  many  species  of  bivalve  mollusca  move  along  on 
the  sandy  bottoms  of  the  water  in  which  they  live,  with 
greater  or  less  facility.  In  nearly  every  still  pond  or  river, 
the  furrows  left  by  the  passage  of  unios,  or  fresh-water 
clams,  may  be  seen  running  in  every  direction,  and  made 
in  this  manner. 


In  what  manner  does  the  cardium  move?    How  does  the  cardium  burr 
tself  in  the  sand  ? 

3* 


30 


MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 


CEPHALOPODA. 


67.  Among  the  mollusca,  next  to  the  acephala,  in  the 
order   of  organic  development,  come   the  cephalopoda*  a 
name  which  signifies  head-footed,  in  allusion  to  the  situa- 
tion of  the  organs  of  locomotion,  which  are  on  the  head. 

68.  These  parts  consist  of  many  long,  flexible,  muscular 
legs,  or  fleshy  processes,  situated  like  the  tentacula  of  the 
polypi,  around  the  opening  of  the  mouth.     These  members 
answer  the  double  purposes  of  legs  and  arms,  of  feet  and 
hands,  for  they  are  not  only  employed  as  organs  of  loco- 
motion, but  as  those  of  prehension  also. 

69.  The  Cuttle  Fish. — One  of  these  most  singular  ani- 
mals is  represented  by  Fig.  22,  being  one  of  the  sepia,  or 
cuttle-fish  tribe,  called  loligo,  or  calamary. 

Fig.  22. 


70.  In  addition  to  the  prehensile  powers  of  these  ten- 
tacula, by  which  they  grasp  objects  with  greater  force,  by 
twining  around  them,  they  also  have  the  power  of  adhe- 
sion by  means  of  suckers,  in  the  form  of  tubercles  placed 
along  their  inner  sides,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 

71.  "So  great  is  the  force,"  says  Dr.  Roget,  "  with 
which  the  tentacular  of  the  cuttle-fish  adhere  to  bodies  by 
means  of  this  apparatus,  that  while  their  muscular  fibres 
continue  contracted,  it  is  easier  to  tear  away  the  substance 
of  the  limb,  than  to  release  it  from  its  attachments.  Even 
in  the  dead  animal,"  he  continues,  "  I  have  found  that  the 
suckers  retain  considerable  power  of  adhesion  to  any 
smooth  surface  to  which  they  may  be  applied." 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  cephalopoda?    Why  is  this  term  ap- 
i«d  to  wrtain  animals?    Gue  some  description  of  the  cuttle-fish. 


CRUSTACEA.  31 

72.  Beside  the  tentacula,  the  cuttle-fish  is  furnished  with 
a  pair  of  arms,  with  the  ends  expanded,  .and  also  fur- 
nished with  suckers.     These  long  members  are  employ- 
ed as  cables,  and  the  suckers  as   anchors,  by  which  these 
animals   fix   themselves   firmly   to/  rocks   during   violent 
agitations  of  the  sea,  and  without  which  they  would  un- 
doubtedly   sometimes    be   dashed   to    death    against   the 
rocky  shores.     These   long    arms  are  not  employed  by 
the  animal  in  swimming,  the  short  ones  being  used   as 
oars  for  the  purpose  of  impelling  this  singular  creature, 
not  forward  but  backward,  for  in  this  manner  do  all  the 
cuttle-fish    tribe   swim.      Some   of  them    are   fifteen   or 
twenty  feet  long. 

ARTICULATA. 

73.  The  animals  now  to  be  noticed  are  articulated,  or 
are  provided  with  joints,  by  means  of  which  their  hard  and 
inflexible    parts     become    the    instruments    of    motion. 
Hence  this  division  includes  animals  having  joints,  wheth- 
er large  or  small,  and  by  which  they  are  at  once  distin- 
guished from  the  mollusca,  where  nothing  analogous  to 
articulation  exists.     This  division  contains  a  vast  assem- 
blage of  living  beings,  including  the  insects,  fishes,  and 
quadrupeds.      The    limits    of  this   work   will,   however, 
allow*an  account  of  the  physiology  "of  only  a  few  of  the 
most  curious  and  important. 

CRUSTACEA. 

74.  The  Crustacea  are  animals  encased  in  a  compact, 
crusty  frame  work,  composed  chiefly  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
as  the  lobster  and  crab. 

75.  The  joints  of  crust aceous  •  animals  are  constructed  in 
the   most    admirable   manner,   by    which   in   most  cases 
every  part  of  the  limb  can  be  moved  in  all  directions 
They  have   either  three  or  four  pairs  of  legs,  each  of 
which  is  divided  into  five  pieces,  by  as  many  joints.     On 
each  side  of  the   head  there  are  long,  and  often  very 

Why  are  certain  animals  denominated  articulata?  What  races  of 
inimals  are  articulated  ?  What  are  the  Crustacea  ?  What  parts  of 
;hese  animals  are  called  antennae  ? 


32  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

delicately-formed  instruments,  called  antenna,  or  feelers. 
These,  in  the  lobster,  are  many  inches  in  length,  and 
composed  of  a  great  number  of  rings,  articulated  to 
each  other  in  a  most  beautiful  manner,  and  furnished 
with  minute  muscles  on  the  inside,  so  as  to  give  them 
motions  in  all  possible  directions,  at  the  will  of  the  ani- 
mal. Some  naturalists  have  supposed  that  these  are 
not  merely  the  organs  of  feeling,  but  that  they  might  also 
serve  for  that  of  hearing,  or  smelling  also. 

76.  As  the  coverings  of  the  Crustacea  are  composed  of 
hard  unyielding  substances,  it  is  obvious  that  the  animal 
within   must   be   restrained   in  its   growth,   unless   some 
means  were  provided  by  which  it  could  relieve  itself  from 
such    confinement,    and   accordingly,    as    nature    every- 
where provides  for  the   comfort  and  perpetuity   of  the 
lowest,  as  well   as  the  highest  of  her  works,  so  in  the 
case  before  us,  the  animal  has  the  power  of  casting  off 
its   old   covering  when  it  becomes  too  small,  the  same 
being  soon  after  replaced  by  a  new  one,  of  ample  dimen- 
sions. 

77.  The  Process  of  casting  the  Shell. — These   animals 
cast  their  shells  once  a  year  ;  and  the  manner  in  which  the 
Lobster,  as  an  example,  draws   himself  out   of  his   old 
case,   his  condition  afterward,    and  the  incipient  forma- 
tion of  the  new  shell,  has  been  particularly  investigated 
by  the  celebrated  Reaumur. 

78.  The  lobster,  some  time  before  the  process  begins, 
becomes    exceedingly    restless,    undoubtedly    from    the 
pain  excited  by  the  pressure  of  its  shell,   and  thus  the 
poor 'animal   is   under   the  necessity   of  making   violent 
efforts  to  relieve  itself.     By  this  means  the  shell  is  burst 
open  along  the  chest,  between  the  insertion  of  the  legs. 
The   clawrs   are    the   first    parts   withdrawn    from    th'eir 
sheaths,  and  next  the  feet,  both  of  which  seem  to  require 
much  muscular  exertion ;  the  head  next  throws  off  its 
case,  together  with  the  many-jointed   antenna?,  and  the 
two  eyes  are  disengaged  from  their  horny  pedicles.     In 
this   operation,   not  only  the   complex  apparatus  of  the 

What  provision  has  nature  made  for  the  growth  of  the  Crustacea?    In 
what  manner  does  the  lobster  cast  off  its  crusty  covering  ? 


CRUSTACEA.  33 

jaws,  but  even  the  horny  cuticle  and  teeth  of  the  stomach, 
are  all  cast  off  along  with  the  shell ;  and  last  of  all  the 
tail  is  extricated.  The  whole  process  is  not  accomplished 
without  long-continued,  violent,  and  painful  efforts.  Some- 
times the  legs  are  lacerated,  or  even  torn  off  in  attempting 
to  withdraw  them  from  the  shell,  and  not  unfrequently  in 
the  younger  animal,  death  follows  before,  or  soon  after  its 
accomplishment.  Even  under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances, the  denuded  animal  is  left  in  the  most  languid  and 
helpless  condition,  the  limbs  being  so  soft  and  pliant,  as  by 
the  utmost  exertion  to  be  scarcely  able  to  draw  the  body 
along. 

79.  The  flesh  is  not,  however,  left  entirely  without  de- 
fence, for  before  the  old  shell  is  cast  away,  preparations 
have   commenced  for    a   new  one;    the  membrane  sur- 
rounding the  entire  animal,  and  which  by  the  addition 
of  new  matter  becomes  the  future  shell,  having  already 
acquired  some  density.     As  soon  as  the  old  shell  is  cast 
off,  this  membrane  which  wras  flabby  and  wrinkled,  be- 
comes tense  by  the  expansion,  or  sudden  growth  of  the 
animal,  so  that  the  new  shell  is  much  larger  than  the  old 
one.     The  process  of  hardening,  and  thickening,  now  pro- 
ceeds rapidly,  and  the  animal  soon  acquires  the  perfect  use 
of  its  limbs,  with  the  addition  of  about  one  fifth  of  its  for- 
mer weight. 

80.  The  lobster,  like  some  species  of  polypi,  already  de- 
scribed, when  it  happens  to  lose  a  limb,  soon  acquires  a 
new  one  in  its  place.     Possibly  the  instinct  of  the  animal 
has  taught  it  this  fact,  for  when  caught  by  one  of  the 
claws,  it  will  sometimes  by  a  sudden  jerk  break  the  limb 
off  at  the  first  joint,  or  at  its  junction  with  the  trunk,  at 
which  place  it  appears  that  the  new  limb  grows  with  the 
greatest  facility. 

81.  With  respect  to  the  growth  of  the  new  claw,  Reau- 
mur observed  that  the  wound  left  by  the  old  one  soon 
becomes  covered  with  a  delicate  white  membrane,  with  a 
convex  surface.     This  is  gradually  pushed  forward,  be- 
coming thinner  as  it  is  stretched,  until  it  gives  way,  and 
exposes  the  little  new  claw  in  the  soft  state.     The  new 
part  now  enlarges  rapidly,  and  in  a  few  days,  acquires  a 
shell  as  hard  as  the  old  one.     It  however  does  not  attain 


34  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

the  size  of  the  preceding  claw,  or  its  mate,  and  this  is  the 
reason  why  we  often  see  both  lobsters  and  crabs  with  one 
of  these  parts  much  smaller  than  the  other. 

INSECTS. 

82.  This  division  of  animals  derives  its  name  from  the 
Latin  insecto,  which   signifies  "  to  cut "  because  most  of 
them  appear  nearly  divided  by  an  incision  through  the 
middle. 

83.  The  natural  history  of  this  class  of  animals  affords 
a  highly  interesting,  useful,  and  curious  field  of  inquiry. 
It  is  a  subject,  in  which  it  appears  to  us,  the  most  incuri- 
ous can  hardly  avoid  to  take  more  or  less  interest,  since  its 
objects  are  so  common  and  so  diversified  in  appearance,  as 
to  have  forced  themselves,  more  or  less,  on  the  notice  of 
every  one  who  has  his  perfect  senses. 

84.  Insects  have  organs  of  locomotion,  sensation,  sight, 
and  taste,  and  many  of  them  are  endowed  with  the  most 
wonderful  instincts  ;  but  they  have  neither  heart,  arteries, 
nor  lungs,  though  some  of  them  have  parts  analogous  to 
the  two  latter  organs. 

85.  Changes  in  the  forms  of  Insects. — Most  insects  be- 
gin their  lives  in  the  form  of  larva?,  or  worms,  the  power 
of  flight  being  reserved  until  after  having  passed  through 
several  preparatory  changes,  they  attain  their  perfect  state. 
These  changes  are  termed  metamorphoses,  and  are  most 
conveniently    seen    in    the    lepidopterous,    or    butterfly 
tribes. 

86.  Beginning  with  the  hatching  of  the  egg,  laid  by 
the  butterfly,  the  following  changes  take  place,  before  a 
butterfly  is  again  produced.     Most  of  these  eggs  are  no 
larger  than  mustard-seeds,  and   are  attached  to  the  leaves 
of  plants  on  which  the  future  larva,  or  caterpillar,  is  to 
feed.      In   this   the   butterfly   is   directed   by   that    most 
mysterious  property  called   instinct,   and   by  which   she 
never  fails  to  place  her  eggs  on  such  plants  as  are  the 
most  proper  food   for  her   future   progeny.     Thus  somt 


What  is  said  of  the  lobster  acquiring  a  new  claw  in  place  of  one  de 
stroyed?  Whence  is  the  term  insect  derived?  What  organs  have  insects . 
In  what  form  do  insects  begin  their  lives  ? 


INSECTS.  36 


species  place  their  eggs  on  nettles,  others  on  the  parsnip, 
others  on  the  cabbage,  &c.,  and  it  is  found  that  if  the  cater- 
pillars produced,  are  transferred  from  one  of  these  plants 
to  the  other,  they  in  most  cases  die  of  starvation,  or  im- 
proper food,  being  unable  to  partake  of  any  other,  except 
that  on  which  they  are  found. 

87.  The  young  caterpillar  is  at  first  exceedingly  small, 
being  often  less  than  a  line  in  length.     As  they  enlarge 
in  size,  their  skins  being  at  first  somewhat  elastic,  are 
stretched  so  as  to  accommodate  their  growth.     But  this 
part  growing  more  firm  with  age,  finally  refuses  to  yield 
any  further  to  the  growth  of  the  animal.     It  is  then  cast 
off  in  the  following  manner.     The  worm  fastens  the  old 
skin  to  the  side  of  a  leaf,  and  then  breaks  through  that 
part  which  covers  the  head,  and  liberating  its  fore  feet, 
gradually  draws  the  body  out,  the   skin   remaining   sta- 
tionary.    But  before  this  is  done,  a  new  skin  has  been 
prepared    underneath,  more   capacious   than   the  former, 
and  which  again  for  a  time  allows  the  insect  to  grow. 
This,  however,  in  its  turn  becomes  too  small ;  or  rather 
the  caterpillar  becomes  again  too  large  for  its  skin,  and  the 
same  process  is  repeated  four  or  five  times  before  the  full 
size  is  attained. 

88.  When  the  larva  is  full  grown,  and  therefore  when 
there  is  no  further  necessity  for  a  new  skin,  it  makes  a 
much  more  decided  and  important  change  than  those  it 
"had  before  undergone ;  for   although  it   had  thrown  off 
coat  after  coat,  it  still  had  become  nothing  more  than  a 
worm.      But  now  it  not  only  strips  itself  of  the  cater- 
pillar's skin  for  the  last  time,  but  so  changes  its  form  as 
to  have  no   appearance  of  what   it   was  before.     It   is 
wrapped  in  a  shroud  of  skin,  presenting  no  vestige  of  its 
former  legs,  mouth,  or  any  other  member.      It  is   fixed 
in  its  place  by  a  rope  of  silk,  or  wound  up  in  a  cocoon  of 
the  same  material,  and  presents  in  either  case,  scarcely  any 
signs  of  life.     In  this  condition  it  is  said  to  be  in  its  pupa, 
or  chrysalis  state. 


What  is  said  of  the  different  plants  on  which  the  butterfly  lays  her 
eggs  ?  What  change  takes  place  when  the  larva  passes  to  the  chry 
sails  ? 


36 


MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 


Fig.  25. 


Some  insects 


89.  The  silk  worm. — Of  the  silk  worm,  Fig.  24  repre- 
sents   the     full-  Fig.  24. 

grown  caterpil- 
lar, and  figure 
25  the  chrysalis 
which  it  produ- 
ces, the  latter  be- 
ing deprived  of  its  cocoon  in  order  to  show 
its  form  and  size. 

90.  The  chrysalis  remains  in  this  state 
for  various  lengths  of  time,  depending 
on  the  species  to  which  it  belongs,  or 
on  the  warmth  to  which   it   is   exposed. 

continue  in  this  state  for  years,  while  others  emerge  and 
become  perfect  in  a  week  or  two.  During  this  time, 
the  organs  which  are  to  serve  them  in  their  future  and 
more  elevated  career,  are  preparing ;  although  very  little 
change  can  be  observed  in  the  size,  or  appearance  of  the 
chrysalis. 

91.  When  the  time  arrives  that  these  several  organs  are 
completely  formed,  and  the  butterfly  is  ready  to  assume 
its  rank  among  the  beautiful    and   lively  inhabitants  of 
the  air,  then  it  is  that  the  insect  bursts  the  shroud  in 
which  it  has  so  long  been  enclosed,  and  comes  forth  in 
form  and  colors  so  beautiful,  and  in  spirits  so  joyous  and 
sportive,  as    amply    to  Fig.  26. 
compensate  for   its  in- 
glorious   and    degraded 

origin.  Our  insect  has 
now  arrived  to  its  imago, 
perfect,  or  butterfly  state, 
the  moth,  of  the  silk- 
worm being  represented 
by  Fig.  26. 

92.  Through  these  several  changes  do  all  the  butterflies, 
and  a  great  proportion  of  the  insects,  properly  so  called, 
pass.    Some  of  them  enjoy  their  perfect  state  only  for  a 
short  time,  a  few  hours;   while  others  continue  to   dis- 
play thek  beauties,  and  wanton  among  the  sweets  of  the 

How  long  do  insects  remain  in  the  chrysalis  state  ? 


METAMORPHOSES   OF    INSECTS.  37 

garden  for  weeks  and  months.     In  all  cases  they  deposite 
eggs  for  a  future  race  before  their  final  exit. 

93.  The  moth,  or  as  it  is  more  commonly  called  the 
butterfly,  or  the  silk-worm,  has,  like  all  other  insects,  six 
legs.     The  wings  are  four,  of  a  grayish  white  color,  with 
two  transverse  undulated  bands  across  them.     They  are 
far  from  being  beautiful  when  compared  with  most  others 
of  the  same  race,  and  are  also  entirely  void  of  that  sport- 
ive vivacity,  so  common  to  most  other  species. 

i 

METAMORPHOSES   OF    INSECTS. 

94.  The  subject  of  insect  metamorphoses  has  excited 
curiosity,  and  has  been  the  object  of  inquiry  and  inves- 
tigation among  naturalists  and  philosophers  in   all  ages 
of  the   world.     Having   given   a  detail   of  the   changes 
which  take  place  during  this  process  in   a  single  species, 
we  are   now  prepared  to  pursue  this  wonderful  subject 
more  at  large,  and  to  show  the  variety  and  difference  of 
circumstances  which  attend  the  same  changes  in  other 
species. 

95.  Messrs.  Kirby  and  Spence,  in  one  of  the  best  works 
ever  written  on  insects,  introduce   the  subject   of  their 
metamorphoses    in    the    following   manner :      "  Were   a 
naturalist  to  announce  to  the  world  the  discovery  of  an 
animal,  which,  for  the  first  five  years  of  its  life,  existed  in 
the  form  of  a  serpent,  which  then,  penetrating  into  the 
earth,   and  weaving  a  shroud  of  pure  silk  of  the  finest 
texture,    contracted  itself  within   this    covering    into    a 
body  without   external  mouth  or  limbs,  and  resembling 
more  than    anything    else    an   Egyptian    mummy ;    and 
which,  lastly,  after  remaining  in  this  state,  without  food, 
and  without  motion,  for  three  years   longer,  should,  at 
the  end  of  that  period,  burst  its  silken  cerements,  strug- 
gle through   its   earthy   covering,   and   start   into  day  a 
winged  bird — what,  think   you,    would   be  the  sensation 
excited  by  this  intelligence  1     After  the  first  doubts  of 
its  truth  were  dispelled,  what  astonishment-  would  suc- 
ceed !     Among  the  learned  what  surmises,  what  inves- 

What  is  said  of  the  time  which  the  chrysalids  of  insects  remain  in  the 
torpid  state  ? 


3$  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

tigations  !     Among  the  vulgar  what  eager  curiosity,  what 
amazement !" 

96.  In  the  same  spirit,  Swammerdam,  who  spent  most 
of  his  life  in  making  observations  on  insects,  observes  on 
the  same  subject :  "  This  history  is  so  extraordinary,  so 
amazing  in  all  its  circumstances,  that  it  might  very  well 
pass  lor  a  romance,  were  it  not  built  upon  the  most  firm 
foundations  of  truth." 

97.  With  respect  to  the  size  and  appearance  of  the  cat- 
erpillars, and  of  the  chrysalids  they  form,  as  well  as  the 
situations  in  which  they  are  placed,  and  the  time  of  re- 
maining in  the   torpid  state,  there  are  nearly   as  many 
varieties  as  there  are   species   of  insects.     Some   larva:- 
descend   deep  into  the   ground   before   they    assume   the 
torpid  state,  and  there  remain  three  or  four  years  before 
they  acquire  wings.     Others  weave  small  cocoons,  and 
having   thus   covered  themselves   in   beds  of  silk,   then 
change  to  chrysalids.     These  are  sometimes  constructed 
in   the  earth,    and    sometimes    attached  to   the   sides   of 
fences,  or  the  side  of  any  vessel  in  which  the  worm  is 
confined.      If  confined   in    a    glass   vessel,   the    observer 
may  witness  the  whole  process  of  weaving  the  cocoon, 
and  of  casting  off  the  old  skin,  by  which  the  chrysalis 
becomes  apparent. 

98.  The  positions  in  which  the  larvee  place  themselves 
in  order  to  undergo  this  change,  are  also  extremely  vari- 
ous.    One  species  suspends  itself  to  a  leaf  with  its  head 
downward,  being  only  fixed  by  the  tail ;   another  passes 
a  rope  of  silk  around  its  neck,  and  thus  hangs  in  an  ob- 
lique position ;  while  others  are  simply  glued  in  a  hori- 
zontal position,  in  any  convenient  place. 

99.  Larva  which  feed  on  the  Parsnip. — There  is  a 
common  larva  which  may  be  seen  feeding  on  the  leaves  of 
parsnips  in  the  autumn,  and  which  every  one  has  noticed 
on  account  of  its  handsome  appearance,  and   the  foetid 
odor  which  it  emits  on  being  disturbed.     The  color  is 
greenish  yellow,  with  bands  of  velvety  black,  and  when 
full  grown  it  is  nearly  two  inches  long.     The  youngei 
ones  of  this  caterpillar  wrould  at  first  be  taken  for  a  diffei 

What  is  said  of  the  positions  in  which  chrysalids  are  placed  ? 


METAMORPHOSES   OF   INSECTS.  tfi* 

ent  species,  being  dotted,  or  sprinkled,  with  yellow  and 
black,  instead  of  having  the  colors  well  defined.  If 
the  young  naturalist  will  take  a  sprig  of  the  parsley  with 
one  of  these  on  it,  and  put  the  whole  into  a  glass  jar,  or 
other  place  of  confinement,  taking  care  to  water  the 
plant,  he  will  soon  find  it  to  be  identical  with  the  large 
ones. 

100.  This  larva  is  remarkable  for  having  on  the  back 
of  the  neck,  an  instrument  composed  of  two  fleshy  horns, 
branching  from  a  common  stem  somewhat  like  the  letter 
Y.     This  organ  appears  to  be  similar  in  some  respects  to 
the  horns  of  snails,  and  is  capable  of  similar  movements, 
being  completely  retractile.     When  the  animal  is  irritated 
these  horns  are  projected,  and  it  appears  from  the  observa- 
tion of  Reaumur,  that  this  organ  secretes  an  acid  liquor, 
which  emits  the  unpleasant  smell,  and  which  every  one 
who  has  touched  one  of  these  worms,  cannot  but  have 
perceived.     Reaumur  supposes  that  this  acid  is  a  means 
of  defence  against  the  attacks  of  the  ichneumon,  a  small 
fly  which  deposites  its  eggs  in  the  flesh  of  the  larvae  of 
various  insects. 

101.  This  larva,  when  spinning  the  silken  cord  by  which 
it  is  to  be  supported  in  the      F'S-  27.  Fig.  28. 
chrysalis    state,   invariably 

fixes  it  round  the  neck  at 
the  junction  of  the  fifth  and 
sixth  segments,  where  there 
is  a  cavity  in  which  it  is 
kept  from  sliding  backward 
or  forward.  This  cord  ap- 
pears to  pass  under  the  skin 
of  the  chrysalis,  but  on  ex- 
amination with  a  magnifier, 
it  will  be  seen,  only  almost 
concealed  in  a  deep  chan- 
nel. The  larva  and  its 
chrysalis,  both  of  the  natur- 
al size,  are  represented  by  Figs.  27  and  28  j  the  latter  be- 
ing suspended  by  the  cord  in  the  manner  described. 

102.  Difference  in  the   chrysalids   of  butterflies  and 
moths. — There  are  differences  between  the  chrysalids  of 


40  MECHANICAL  FUNCTIONS 

butterflies  and  moths,  and  also  between  these  species  of  in- 
sects, which  it  is  proper  to  point  out  at  this  place.  The 
chrysalids  of  butterflies  are  naked,  that  is  ^  Fig.  29. 
they  are  not  covered  with  cocoons,  but  are 
attached  to  trees,  or  other  substances,  by 
silken  cords,  passing  round  the  neck  (Fig. 
28),  or  are  attached  by  the  tip,  and  hang 
suspended  as  represented  by  Fig.  29.  They 
are  also  angular.  The  antennae  of  butterflies 
are  club-shaped,  that  is,  they  are  thickest 
toward  the  tip,  or  end  in  a  bulb,  as  seen  by 
Fig.  30. 

Fig-  30. 


103.  The  chrysalids  of  the  moths,  or  millers,  as  they 
are  sometimes  called,   are   commonly  short   cones   com- 
posed of  several  rings,  and  presenting  no  an-       pjg.  31. 
gles.     They    are   usually  enclosed   in   brown 
silk  cocoons,  sometimes  glued  to  the  sides  of 
trees,  or  fences,  and  sometimes  buried  in  the 
ground.     A  few  are  naked,  and  are  suspended 
by   the   small   end.     Fig.  31   represents   the 
most  common  form.     Both  forms  of  chrysa- 
lids are  occasionally  dotted  with  spots  exactly 
resembling  gold. 

What  difference  is  there  between  the  chrysalis  of  a  butterfly  and  a  moth? 
What  is  the  difference  between  the  antennae  of  these  insects  ? 


METAMORPHOSES  OF  INSECTS.  41 

104.  The    antennae  of   moths  are   somewhat    sword- 
shaped,    tapering    from  Fig.  32. 

the  insertion  to  the  point, 
and  are  sometimes  frin- 
ged,Fig32. 

105.  The  butterflies 
are  diurnal  insects,  fly- 
ing only  in  the  day.  The 
moths  are  nocturnal.,  sel- 
dom   flying    except    at 
night,    or    after    sunset. 
Some  of  the  small  species 

are,  however,  occasionally  seen  by  day. 

106.  Some  of  this  tribe  called  hawk-moths,  have  a  pro- 
boscis or  tongue,  several  inches  long,  by  means  of  which 
they  pump  -the  honey  from  the  nectaries  of  flowers.     Both 
butterflies  and  moths,  are  furnished  with  four  wings,  six 
legs,  a  proboscis,  and  suck  honey  as  their  chief  aliment. 

107.  Change  from  the  chrysalis  to  the    butterfly. — 
Swammardam,  one  of  the  oldest  and  best  authorities  on 
the  anatomy  of  larvaB,  demonstrated  that  even  before  the 
time  when  the  caterpillar  changes  into  the  chrysalis,  all 
the  parts  of  a  butterfly  may  be  discovered  within  its  skin. 
His  directions  for  observing  this  phenomenon  are,  to  take 
a  full-grown  caterpillar^,  and  having  tied  it  to  a  thread,  put 
it  into  boiling  water,  and  take  it  out  soon  after ;  thus  its 
external  skin  will  separate,  and  may  be  easily  drawn  off 
from  the  butterfly,  which  is  contained  folded  up  in  it.    This 
done,  it  is   clearly  and   distinctly  seen,  that  within  this 
skin  of  the  caterpillar,  a  perfect  and   real  butterfly  was 
hidden. 

108.  On  examining  certain  chrysalids,  which  are  cover- 
ed with  a  light-colored  shroud,  and  consequently  translu- 
cent, we  are  able  to  discover  the  eyes  of  the  butterfly,  as 
well  as  its  wings,  which  are  of  small  size,  and  folded  upon 
the  sides.  There  may  also  be  observed  several  slender,  ribs 
or  divisions,  arising  from  the  head,  and  which,  on  more 

What  is  the  difference  in  their  time  of  flying  ?  What  is  said  of  the  exist- 
ence  of  the  butterfly  within  the  skin  of  the  larva  ?  What  is  said  of  the  but- 
terfly in  the  chrysalis  ? 


•MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 


minute  examination,  may  be  seen  to  consist  of  the  two  fila- 
ments of  the  tongue,  or  proboscis,  the  legs,  and  the  antennae 
of  the  butterfly. 

109.  It   appears,  therefore,  that   during   the   chrysalis 
state,  the  future  organs  which  the  butterfly  requires,  are  in 
the  progress  of  perfection,  as  those  of  the  chicken  aie  in 
the  egg,  and  that  when  the  insect  has  remained  under  this 
form  a  sufficient  length  of  time  for  these  parts  to  gain  a 
proper  degree  of  consistence  and  strength,  it  then  bursts 
open  the  membrane,  and  makes  its  escape,  as  the  young 
quail  does  from  its  egg-shell. 

110.  Just  before  the  butterfly  emerges  from  its  confine- 
ment, it  is  easy  to  see,  in  some  chrysalids,  the  form  of  the 
legs,   antenna,  and   tongue,  and  even   the  color  of  the 
wings.     The   extremities   of   the    legs   may  be   seen  to 
move,  the  wings  to  enlarge,  and  finally  the  whole  insect 
to  struggle  as  if  determined  no  longer  to  submit  to  con- 
finement.    After  a  few  such  efforts,  the  membrane  of  the 
chrysalis    gives    way  in  a  longitudinal    rent    down   the 
back,  wrhere  a  suture   may  be  observed,  undoubtedly  for 
this  purpose.     The  rent  then  extends  over  the  head,  and 
down   the  breast,  and    after  various  efforts    and   contor- 
tions, the  butterfly  finally  disengages  itself  entirely  from 
its  covering,  leaving  it  divided   into  several   sections,  as 
represented  by  Fig.  33.     But  the  insect,  Fl£-  33- 
though  now  disengaged  from  its  prison, 

has  not  yet  attained  its  full  perfection, 
for,  beside  being  exceedingly  weak,  so 
as  hardly  to  be  able  to  crawl,  its  wings 
are  folded  and  doubled  together  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  make  them  appear  like 
pieces  of  wet  paper,  as  shown  by  Fig.  34. 
The  spots  and  markings  are  also  indis- 
tinct, as  though  their  wet  condition  had 
made  the  colors  run  into  each  other.  But 
they  expand  with  such  rapidity,  that,  ac- 
cording to  Swammardam,  "  the  naked 
eye  cannot  trace  their  unfolding,  for, 
from  reaching  scarce  half  the  length  of 
the  body,  they  acquire,  O  miracle  of  mir- 
acles !  in  the  short  space  of  about  half  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  their  full  extent,  and 


METAMORPHOSES   OF    INSECTS.  43 

bigness."     The  colorings  peculiar  to  each  species  also  be- 
come defined  and  perfect  as  the  wings  expand. 

111.  The  means  employed  to  effect  a  change  so  wonder- 
ful with  respect  to  the  wings,  and  in  so  short  a  time,  has 
not  been  left  unexplained. 

112.  The  wings  of  the  young  butterfly,  how  expanded. 
The  wings  of  butterflies  are  composed  of  two  fine  mem- 
branes between  which  are  little  veins  or  ribs  resembling 
those  of  the  leaves  of  some  plants.     These  may  be  seen 
by  the  naked  eye,  when  the  scales,  or  dust  which  colors 
the  wings  is  rubbed  off,  and  are  called  nervures.     They 
are  hollow  tubes,  having  a  communication  at  the  insertion 
of  the  wing  with  the  body  of  the  insect.     Into  these,  the 
young  butterfly  forces  a  quantity  of  air,  and  perhaps  also  a 
fluid,  and  by  the  distention  of  which,  the  folds  and  wrinkles 
of  the  soft  and  wet  wings  are  in  a  few  moments  oblitera- 
ted.    The  nervures,  and  also  the  fully-developed  wings,  are 
shown  by  Fig.  35. 

Fig.  35. 


113.  These  when  compared  with  Fig.  34,  will  show  the 
change  produced  by  the  means  above  described  in  "  half  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,"  and  at  the  sight  of  which,  Swammar- 
dam  could  not  help  exclaiming,  "  O  !  miracle  of  miracles !" 
The  whole  process,  indeed,  from  the  hatching  of  the  egg, 
to  the  perfection  of  the  butterfly,  though  not  a  miracle, 
because  the  whole  is  in  the  ordinary  course  of  nature, 
must  ever  be  considered  among  the  most  wonderful  se- 


In  what  manner  does  the  butterfly  make  its  escape  from  the  chrysalis  ? 
Is  the  insect  perfect  when  thus  disengaged  ?  In  what  manner  are  the  new 
wings  of  the  butterfly  unfolded  and  distended  ? 


44 


MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 


ries  of  natural  phenomena  which  man  has  been  allowed 
to  witness.  Who  can  study  such  traits  of  nature,  with- 
out acknowledging  the  care,  design,  and  wisdom  of  the 
Creator  to  be  displayed  in  them  in  a  most  striking  and 
wonderful  degree ! 

114.  Wing-scales  of  butterflies. — The  soft  down  which 
covers   the   wings   of  butterflies   and   moths,  W7hich  ap- 
pears like  the  finest  dust,  and  by  which  all  the  splendid 
variety  of  colors  are  given  to  these  insects,  is  found  when 
magnified,  to  consist  of  scales,  or  feathers,  of  different, 
but   regular   forms.      It   is   from   these    scales    that    the 
name    of    this    genus,   lepidoptera    "  scaly-winged,"    is 
given. 

115.  According  to  some  naturalists,  these  minute  parts 
should  be  considered  rather  as  feathers  than  as  scales, 
since   they  are  affixed   to   the  wings  by  minute   quills. 
But   others   consider  them    as   scales,   from   their   being 
composed  of  merely  membranous  plates,  having  nothing 
in  common  with  feathers,  excepting,  perhaps,  the  manner 
in  which  they  are  attached.     The  reader  may  have  the 

Fig.  36. 


opportunity  of  deciding  this  matter  for  himself,  by  con- 
sulting Fig.  36,  where  the  forms  of  a  number  of  these 
parts  are  shown,  highly  magnified.  The  number  of  these 
on  the  wings  of  the  larger  butterflies,  must  amount 


METAMORPHOSES   OF   INSECTS  45 

to  millions,  since  Leuwerihoeck,  the  best  observer  on 
such  subjects,  found  more  than  400,000  of  them  on  the 
wings  of  the  silk-worm  moth,  which  is  comparatively  a 
small  insect. 

116.  The  construction  and  arrangement  of  the  parts  of 
these  scales  are  very  regular   and  beautiful,  their  surfa- 
ces being  striated  with   parallel,  and  equi-distant  lines, 
the  distinct  visibility  of  which,  in  those  from  the  Pontia 
brassica,  or  cabbage-butterfly,  is  considered  as  affording  an 
excellent  test  of  the  goodness  of  microscopes. 

117.  The  forms  of  these  scales  as  seen  by  the  adjoining 
figures  are  exceedingly  various,   as  also  their  sizes,  when 
magnified   by   the   same   power.      These    differences    of 
form  occur  not  only  in  the  different  species,  but  also  on 
different  parts  of  the  wings  and  body  of  the   same  in- 
sect ;  for  the  surface  of  the  body  generally,   as  well  as 
the  legs,  and  in  some  species  the   antennaB,  are  more  or 
less  covered  with  these  scales.     These  forms  are  indeed 
so  various  on  different  parts  of  the  same  insect,  that  in 
the  works  of  that  distinguished  naturalist,  Lyonet,  there 
are  six  quarto  plates  nearly  covered  with  the  delineations 
of  different  forms  of  these  scales  found  on  a  moth  of  the 
silk-worm  tribe,  the  Bombyx  cossus. 

118.  The  arrangement  of  these  scales  upon  the  wings 
are  in  regular  transverse  lines,  the  ends  of  one  row  lying 
over  the  basis  of  the  next,  like  the  shingles  on  the  roof 
of  a  house.     When  these   are  removed  from  both  sides 
of  the  wings  of  a  butterfly,  it  will  be  seen  that  these  parts 
are  exceedingly  thin  and  transparent,  like  the  wings  of  the 
dragon  fly  and  bee. 

119.  Red  drops  emitted  by  Butterflies. — Several  spe- 
cies of  butterflies,  just  after  the  time  of  changing  from  the 
chrysalis  to  the  perfect  state,  or  perhaps  at  that  of  emer- 
ging from  their  place  of  confinement,  emit  several  drops  of 
a  red  fluid,  resembling  blood  in   appearance.      When  a 
great  number  of  these  insects   have   been   produced   at 


Whence  does  the  genus  to  which  the  butterfly  belongs  derive  its  name? 
What  is  said  with  respect  to  down  on  the  wings  being  feathers?  What 
is  said  of  these  scales  with  respect  to  their  being  a  test  of  the  goodness 
of  microscopes?  What  is  said  of  the  different  forms  of  these  scales? 
How  are  they  arranged  on  the  wings  of  the  insect  ? 


46  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

the  same  time  and  place,  as  sometimes  happens,  the 
people  have  been  struck  with  terror  and  dismay,  taking 
these  drops  for  the  effects  of  a  shower  of  blood,  which 
of  course  could  portend  nothing  less  than  some  direful 
calamity  to  the  country.  The  author  of  this  volume, 
last  October,  obtained  a  specimen  of  these  bloody  drops, 
from  the  Papilio  artica,  the  caterpillar  of  which  was 
taken  from  the  common  nettle,  and  underwent  the  met- 
amorphoses in  confinement.  The  red  drops  happening 
to  fall  on  a  piece  of  oil-cloth  carpet,  were  cut  out  and 
preserved.  They  are  of  a  deep  red,  and  do  not  fade  by 
keeping.  In  consequence  of  this  circumstance,  the  au- 
thor's attention  was  excited  to  the  subject,  and  he  threw 
together  the  following  remarks  and  facts,  which  were 
offered  as  a  little  contribution  to  "  The  Hartford  Natural 
History  Society." 

120.  Ancient  showers  of  blood  explained  by  facts,  in 
the  Natural  History  of  the  Butterfly. — It  is  well  "known 
to  the  general  reader,  that  various  authors  have  described 
showrers  of  blood  as  falling  from  the  heavens,   and  that 
such   phenomena   have   been    considered   the  miraculous 
precursors  of  some  extraordinary,  or  direful  event.     Thus 
Ovid  has  commemorated  such  an  occurrence  among  the 
other  prodigies  which  attended  the  violent  death  of  the 
great  Roman  dictator. 

"  With  threatening  signs  the  lowering  skies  were  filled, 
And  sanguine  drops  from  murky  clouds  distilled." 

121.  Such  occurrences  are  alluded  to  by  several  other 
ancient    writers,    both     Greek     and     Roman.       Homer 
speaks  of  showrers  of  blood  which  fell  before   his  time, 
and  also  one  or  two,  of  which  it  would  appear  that  he 
was  an   eyewitness.      Such  phenomena  he  declares  in- 
dicate the  direct  and  violent  encroachment  of  the  gods 
on  the  established  laws  of  nature.      Cicero   also  alludes 
to  such  events,  and  was  the  first  to  doubt  their  preter- 
natural origin ;  but  in  his  attempts  to  account  for  them 
on  natural  principles,  he  involves   suppositions  not   less 
difficult  to  explain  than  the  phenomenon  itself,  even  with 
out  reference  to  its  real  cause. 

122.  Dion  Cassius,  who  flourished  in  the  third  century, 
mentions  a  shower  of  blood  which  fell  in  Egypt  in  the 


METAMORPHOSES   OF   INSECTS.  47 

time  of  Octavian.  This,  he  considers,  a  very  rare  and  ex- 
traordinary occurrence,  not  however,  it  would  seem,  be- 
cause it  was  of  blood,  but  because,  as  he  states,  it  fell  in  a 
country  where  showers  of  any  kind  are  unknown. 

123.  Stowe,  the  old  British  Chronicler,  also  speaks  of 
several  cases  of  what  he  calls  blood-rain.     "  In  the  days 
of  Rivalla,"  says  he,  "  it  rained  bloud  three  days,  and  then 
a   great   mortalitie   caused    almost   desolation."      Again, 
"  Li  the  time  of  Brithricus  of  the  blood  of  Cerdicus,  who 
was  king  of  the  West  Saxons   for  seventeen   years,  it 
rained  bloud,  which  falling  on  men's  clothes,  appeared 
like  crosses."     Nor  does  Hollingshed  fail  to  record  some 
scraps  of  the  same  history.     He  relates  that  in  the  fifth 
centuiy,  "  at  Yorke  it  rained   bloud,"   and  that   in   the 
seventh,  "  corne,  as  it  was  gathered  in  the  herveste-tirne, 
appeared  bloudie."     From  Batmans'  "  Doome "  we  find 
that  in  1553,  it  was  deemed   among  the  forewarnings  of 
the  deaths  of  Charles  and  Philip,  Dukes  of  Brunswick, 
that    "ihere    w«re    drops    of    bloud    upon    herbs    and 
trees." 

124.  In  the  'days  of  Nero,  it  is  said  that  blood-rain  fell 
in  such  quantities  as  to  tinge  some  rivers  of  a  red  color. 
It  is  likewise  recorded  by  historians,  that  the  phenomenon, 
or  miracle  of  falling  blood,  either  seen  on  the  leaves  of 
plants,  or  on  stones,  or  fences,  has  occurred  at  various 
times  and  places,  ever  since  the  Christian  era.     But  after 
having  quoted  the  above  authorities,  it  will  be  needless  to 
specify  others  to  establish  the  general  fact  of  such  records. 
It  will  therefore  be  sufficient  to  state  that  two  instances  of 
bloody  rain  are  recorded  to  have  fallen  in  the  tenth  centu- 
ry, one  in  the  eleventh ;  two  in  the  twelfth,  one  in  the 
thirteenth ;  two  in  the  fourteenth ;  one  in  the  fifteenth  ; 
and  five  in  the  sixteenth. 

125.  Thus,  although  it  appears  that  almost  from  the 
earliest  times  of  history,  it  has  been  understood  and  be- 
lieved that  showers  of  blood  actually  falling  from  the  air, 
were  not  uncommon,  still  no  one  as  we  shall  see  directly, 
until  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  un- 
dertook any  serious  investigations  for  the  purpose  of  ac- 
counting for  phenomena  so  extraordinary. 

126.  It  is  most  probable  this  neglect  of  inquiry  aros* 
from  a  superstitious  dread  of  interfering  with  so  sacred  a 


48  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

subject ;  for  it  was  generally  believed  that  such  showers 
undoubtedly  prognosticated  some  direful  event,  and  hence, 
they  were  received  as  miraculous  warnings,  or  special 
interpositions  of  Providence,  in  the  affairs  of  men.  Under 
such  a  belief,  we  can  hardly*  wonder  that  few  or  none 
u  could  be  found,  who  wrere  so  bold,  or  perhaps  wicked,  as 
to  attempt  to  account  for  such  occurrences  on  natural 
principles.  Such  conduct  would  have  been  a  virtual 
denial  of  the  miracle  itself,  or  at  least  a  fool-hardy  at- 
tempt to  explain  the  acknowledged  special  communica- 
tions of  heaven  by  a  reference  to  the  ordinary  laws  of 
nature. 

127.  It  is  true  that  in  the  time  of  Hippocrates,  a  learned 
doctor  named    Garceus,  declared  it  as  his  opinion,  that 
blood-rain  was  common  rain  boiled  by  the  heat  of  the  sun, 
but  with  this  exception,  we  find  no  expressions  of  doubt 
with  respect  to  the  miracle,  or  at  least  no  attempt  to  solve 
the  mystery,  from  the  time  of  Cicero  to  that  of  the  cele- 
brated naturalist  Reaumur,  in  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

128.  Before  we  proceed  to  the  explanation,  it  may  be 
proper  to  remark,  that  so  far  as  we  know,  all  the  ancient 
accounts  of  bloody-rain,  fail  entirely  with  respect  to  the 
detail  of  attending  circumstances.     We  are  not  informed 
whether  such  showers  fell  from  thick  clouds,  accompanied 
with  lightning  and  thunder.     Whether  they  fell  by  night 
or  by  day,  or  indeed  whether  the  red  drops  were  ever 
seen  to  descend,  or  whether  they  were  first  discovered  on 
the  leaves  of  plants,  and  on  stones  and  fences.     Hence 
we  may  fairly  conclude  that  the  fall  of  bloody  showers 
have  only  been  inferred  from  appearances  on,  or  near  the 
ground. 

129.  It  is  now  known  that  there  are  several  species  of 
butterfly  which  emit  red  drops,  immediately  after  their 
emergence  from  the  chrysalis,  as  the  papilio  io,  or  the  pea- 
cock butterfly  ;  the  papilio  urtica?,  and  several  others. 

130.  The  report  of  Reaumur,  to  which  we  have  before 
alluded,  and  which  accounts  satisfactorily  for  these  bloody 
showers,  is  as  follows  :     In  the  beginning  of  July,  1608, 
the  people  of  Aix  la  Chapelle,  were  in  the  utmost  alarm 
from  what   they  thought  a  shower   of  blood,  that  had 
fallen  in  the  suburbs,  and  some  miles  around  the  place. 


METAMORPHOSES   OF    INSECTS.  49 

M.  de  Peiresc,  a  philosopher,  who,  among  other  kinds  ol* 
knowledge,  had  not  neglected  that  of  the  operations  and 
economy  of  insects,  was  consulted  on  the  subject.  He 
found  the  walls  of  a  church-yard  near  the  place,  and  the 
walls  of  several  small  villages  in  the  neighborhood  to  be 
spotted  with  large  drops  of  a  blood-colored  liquid.  A  little 
before  this  time  this  gentleman  had  happened  to  pick  up  a 
large  and  beautiful  chrysalis,  which  he  had  carefully  laid 
in  a  box.  Immediately  after  its  transformation  into  the 
butterfly  state,  he  remarked  that  it  had  left  a  large  drop 
of  a  blood-colored  liquid  in  the  bottom  of  the  box.  The 
red  stains  on  the  walls,  and  the  stones  near  the  highways, 
and  on  the  leaves  of  plants  in  the  fields,  were  found  to 
be  perfectly  similar  to  that  left  on  the  bottom  of  the 
box.  M.  de  Peiresc  hesitated  no  longer  to  pronounce 
that  all  the  blood-colored  stains  wherever  they  appeared, 
proceeded  from  the  same  cause.  The  prodigious  number 
of  butterflies  which  he  at  the  same  time  saw  flying  in 
the  air,  confirmed  his  original  idea.  He  likewise  observed 
that  the  drops  of  miraculous  rain  were  never  found  in  the 
middle  of  the  town,  but  that  they  appeared  only  in  places 
bordering  upon  the  country ;  and  that  they  never  fell 
upon  the  tops  of  houses,  or  upon  walls  more  elevated  than 
the  height  to  which  butterflies  generally  rise.  What  the 
investigator  of  these  facts  saw  himself,  he  showed  to 
many  persons  of  knowledge,  or  curiosity,  and  finally 
established  as  an  incontestable  fact,  that  the  pretended 
drops  of  blood  were  in  reality  nothing  more  than  drops  of 
red  liquid  deposited  by  these  butterflies.  It  is  also  de- 
serving of  remark,  that  all  the  showers  of  blood  that 
have  been  recorded  to  have  happened,  took  place  in  the 
warm  season  of  the  year,  when  butterflies  are  most  nu- 
merous. 

131.  And  now  who  will  deny  the  practical  use  of  en- 
tomology, when  these  simple  facts  have  been  the  means 
of  delivering  the  world  from  the  thraldom  of  superstitious 
fear,  which  from  time  immemorial,  has  been  consequent 
upon  the  belief  in  miraculous  showers  of  blood.  When 
Newton  demonstrated  that  the  comets,  instead  of  wan- 
dering in  any  direction  aud  without  order,  were  confined 
to  regular  orbits,  and  therefore  that  we  of  the  earth,  had 

5 


50  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

nothing  to  fear  from  them,  astronomy  was  hailed  as  the 
noolest  and  most  useful  of  sciences  on  this  very  account ; 
and  yet  astronomy  in  that  instance  did  nothing  more  for 
the  world  than  entomology  has  done  in  the  case  be- 
fore us. 

132.  Tusseh  Silk-Worm. — Before  we  leave  the   lepi- 
dopterous  insects,  we  will  describe  a  species  of  silk  worm 
found  in  India,  which,  although  it  is  not  domesticated  like 
the  common   one  of  Europe  and    America,  the   bombyx 
mori,  still  appears  from  time  immemorial  to  have  furnish- 
ed the  natives  with  an  abundance  of  an  inferior  kind  of 
silk  for  common  uses.     It  is  called  the  Tusseh  silk-worm, 
and  is  found  in  abundance  in  many  parts  of  Bengal  and 
the  adjoining  provinces,  and  the  cocoons  are  reeled  and 
wove  into  a  coarse,  dark-colored,  but  most  durable  fabric, 
called  Tusseh  dootheis,  much  worn  by  the  bramins,  and 
other  classes  of  Hindoos. 

133.  This  silk-worm,  whether  from  want  of  skill,  or 
from  the  wild  habits  of  the  moths,  is  unknown,  has  never 
been  reared  in  the  usual  manner  of  other  worms ;  the  na- 
tives, therefore,  every  year,  at  the  proper  time,  go  into  the 
jungles  and  find  the  young  worms  on  the  limbs  of  certain 
trees,  WThich  they  cut  off  and  convey  to  other  trees  of  the 
same  kinds  near  their  habitations.     These  are  known  by 
the   native  names  of  asseen  and   byers  trees,  and  these 
trees  are    guarded  day  and   night,  in    order   to  prevent 
birds  and  bats  from  destroying  the  young  caterpillars.     In 
two  or  three  weeks,  these  worms    acquire   nearly  their 
full  size,  being  monsters  of  four   inches   in  length,  and 
three  in  circumference ;  their  colors  are  of  a  light  green, 
with   a  yellowish    stripe    on    each  side,  the    sixth    and 
seventh  rings   being  marked  with  an  oblong  golden  spot. 
From  the  back   issue  a  few  long,  coarse,  distinct   hairs, 
with   others  of  a   smaller  size  scattered    over  the  body, 
Fig.  37. 

134.  When    these    worms    are    ready  to    spin    their 
cocoons  in  which  they  change  to  the  chrysalis  state,  they 
begin  by  attaching  glutinous  filaments  to  a  leaf  as  a  found- 
ation, and  afterward  spin  a  strong  cord  by  which  the  fu- 
ture cocoon  is  suspended  to  a  twig  for  additional  security. 
The  cocoon  is  of  an  oval  form  and  firm  texture,  as  rep- 


BEETLES. 


61 


resented  by  Fig.  37,  a.     The  chrysalis  remains  in  the 
torpid  state  for  nine   months,  when   it   discharges  from 


Fig.  37. 


the  mouth  a  quantity  of  corrosive  liquor,  which  softens 
the  upper  end  of  the  cocoon,  and  the  moth  makes  its 
escape. 

135.  These  insects  are  of  enormous  size,  the  largest 
measuring,  with  the  wings  spread,  six,  or  even  eight  inches 
across.     They  are  exceedingly  vigorous  on  the  wing,  and 
fly  to  great  distances.     Tho  natives  often  catch,  and  mark 
them  and  then  let  them  fly ;  the  marks  of  the  different 
districts  being  known,  it  is  said  they  are  frequently  caught 
more  than  a  hundred  miles  distant  from  the  places  where 
they  were  marked. 

136.  The  wings  of  these  insects  are  of  a  uniform  yellow- 
ish brown,  with  one  round  transparent  spot  in  each  of  the 
fore  wings.     They  live  from  six  to  twelve  days,  deposite 
their  eggs,  and  die. 

BEETLES. 

137.  The  beetles  belong  to  the  Lirmsan  order  coleoptera, 
which  word  signifies  "  wing-sheathed,"  so  called,  because 
these   insects  are  provided  with  hard  wing  cases,  with 
which   they   cover,   when    at   rest,   their   proper   wings. 
These  cases  are  called  elytra,  and  when  shut  together, 
form  a  longitudinal  suture  along  the  back.    A  great  variety 


To  what  order  of  insects  do  the  beetles  belong  ?  What  is  the  mean- 
ing of  the  term  coleoptera*  What  are  the  wing  cases  of  these  insects 
called? 


52  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

of  this  tribe  are  known  under  the  common  appellation  of 
bugs.  Most  of  them  fly  only  in  the  night,  and  some  of  the 
larger  make  a  deep-toned  sound  with  their  wings,  so  loud 
as  to  be  heard  many  rods  distant. 

138.  The  larvae  of  some  of  this  tribe,  in  consequence  of 
their  living  under  the  ground,  and  destroying  the  roots  of 
plants,  which  serve  them  for  food,  are  exceedingly  destruc- 
tive to  the  farmer.     The  perfect  insects  also  sometimes 
make   terrible   desolation   among    the    forest   and   other 
trees. 

139.  The  blind  beetle. — The  melolontha  vulgaris,  called, 
also,  chafer,  blind  beetle,  or  more  commonly  cock-chafer, 
is  one  of  these  insects. 

140.  The  larva  of  this  beetle  Fi&-  38- 
is  known  to  farmers  under  the 

name  of  the  white  worm,  and 
is  represented  by  Fig.  38.  The 
eggs  of  these  worms  are  deposi- 
ted in  the  ground  by  the  parent 
insect,  and  when  first  hatched 
are  of  very  small  size.  As  they 
grow,  they  change  their  skins 
several  times,  and  at  the  end  of  four  years,  during  which 
time  they  remain  in  the  earth,  they  acquire  the  size 
represented,  having  six  legs,  armed  with  strong  claws, 
and  a  reddish  head.  During  its  subterranean  residence, 
it  lives  on  the  roots  of  grass,  sometimes  committing  the 
most  deplorable  ravages.  When  their  numbers  are  great, 
they  cut  off  all  the  roots  of  the  grass  in  the  richest  mead- 
ows, leaving  the  turf  entirely  detached  and  dead,  so  that 
it  may  be  rolled  up  by  the  hands  like  a  carpet,  without 
the  aid  of  a  turfing  knife.  Underneath,  the  soil  appears 
pulverized,  and  turned  into  a  soft  mould,  like  the  pre- 
pared bed  of  a  garden.  In  this,  the  worms  are  seen 
coiled  up  and  lying  on  their  backs,  generally  almost 
motionless. 

141.  Some  years  since,  a  poor  farmer  in  Norwich,  Eng- 
land, suffered  so  much  from  these  worms  as  to  destroy  all 
his  hopes,  and  the  authority  of  that  city  out  of  compassion, 
voted  him  25  pounds  to  assist  him  under  such  a  calamity. 
This  man  and  his  servant  testified,  that  they  had   gath- 


BEETLES.  63 

ered  eighty  bushels  of  these  obnoxious  creatures,  but  still 
his  farm,  for  the  season,  was  destroyed. 

142.  At  the  close  of  the  fourth  year,  these  larvae  con- 
struct for  themselves  large  oval  cocoons,  having  first  de- 
scended to  the  depth,  it  is  said,  sometimes  of  five  or  six 
feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

143.  These  cocoons  are  of  an  oval  form,  of  considerable 
bulk,  and  are  constructed  with  a  good  deal  of  ingenuity, 
and  reference  to  comfort,  being  wove  of  silk  and  lined  with 
the  same. 

144.  Fig.  39  shows  the  section  of  Fig.  39. 
one  of  these  cases  with  the  worm  in 

it.  The  covering  of  this  chrysalis  is 
so  thin  and  transparent  that  all  parts 
of  the  insect  may  be  seen  through 
it.  In  the  month  of  February,  the 
perfect  insect  rends  its  envelope, 
and  emerges  from  it,  though  still 
several  feet  under  ground.  It  is  now  yellowish,  soft,  and 
weak,  but  gradually  acquires  strength  and  firmness,  and 
begins  slowly  to  make  its  way  toward  the  surface.  This, 
however,  it  does  not  reach  until  May,  when  it  is  not  un- 
common to  find  these  yellowish  bugs,  as  they  are  called, 
just  under  the  surface,  and  about  which  time  they  as- 
sume their  new  and  elevated  condition  as  inhabitants  of 
the  air. 

145.  The  cockchafer  is  Fig.  40. 
a  strong  insect,  of  a  yel- 
lowish  brown  color ;  an- 

tennse  largely  club-shaped; 
the  feet  armed  with  sharp 
claws,  and  the  body  some- 
what hairy.  Fig.  40  rep- 
resents this  insect  of  the 
natural  size. 

146.  During  the  day  these  beetles  remain  motionless 
sometimes  concealing  themselves  under  the  bark  of  trees, 
and  about  fences ;  but  9n  the  setting  of  the  sun,  they  is- 
sue forth  from  their  hiding-places  to  feed  on  the  leaves 
of  various  'trees,  and  sometimes  their  numbers  are  sucn 
as  to  do  as  much  mischief  in  their  perfect  state,  as  they 

5* 


54  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

did  when  in  that  of  the  larvae,  devastating  whole  forests 
in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  leave  a  green  leaf  behind 
them. 

147.  Devastations  committed  by  this  Beetle. — In   the 
Philosophical  Transactions,  for  the  year  1697,  there  is  an 
account  of  the  appearance  of  these  insects  in  certain  parts 
of  Ireland  and  the  ravages  they  committed  there.     "  Mul- 
titudes,"   says    this    statement,    "  appeared    among   the 
trees  and  hedges  in  the  daytime,  hanging  by  the  boughs 
in  clusters,  like  bees  when  they  swarm.     In  this  posture, 
they   continued,  with   little   or    no    motion,   during    the 
heat  of  the  sun  ;    but   toward  evening  they  would    all 
disperse,  and   fly  about  with  a   strange   humming  noise, 
like  the  beating  of  distant  drums,  and  in  such  vast  num- 
bers that  they  darkened  the  air  for  the  space  of  two  or 
three  square  miles.     Persons  travelling  on  the  roads,  or 
abroad  in  the  fields,  found  it  very  uneasy  to  make  their 
way  through  them,  they  would  so  beat  and  knock  them- 
selves against  their  faces  in  their   flight,  and  with  such 
force  as  to  make  the  place  smart,  and  leave  a  mark  be- 
hind them.     In  a  short  time  after  their  coming,  they  had 
so  entirely  eaten  up  and  destroyed   all  the  leaves  on  the 
trees  for   some    miles   around,  that   the   whole   country, 
though  in  the  middle  of  summer,  was  left  as  bare  as  in 
the  depth  of  winter ;  and  the  noise  they  made  in  gnaw- 
ing the  leaves  made  a  sound  resembling  the  sawing  of 
timber.     They  also  came  into  the  gardens  and  destroyed 
the  buds,  blossoms,  and   leaves  of  all  the  fruit-trees,  so 
that  they  left  them  perfectly  naked ;  nay,  many  that  were 
more   delicate   than  the   rest,  lost  their  sap,  as  well    as 
leaves,  and  quite  withered  away,  so  that  they  never  re- 
covered again. 

148.  Their  numerous  young,  hatched  from  the  eggs 
which  they  had  lodged  under  gfound,  near  the  surface,  did 
still  more  harm  in  that  close  retirement,  than  all  the  flying 
swarms  of  their  parents  had  done  abroad  ;  for  this  destruc- 
tive brood,  lying  under  ground,^ite  up  the  roots  of  corn 
and  grass,  and  thus  consumed  the  support  of  both  man  and 
beast,"     Many  other  instances  of  similar  devastations  are 
recorded  to  have  been  committed  by  these  insects  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  world. 


MANTIS.  65 


MANTIS. 


149.  There  is  an  hemipterous,  or  half-winged  insect  of 
very  singular  manners  and  habits  called  the  orator  mantis, 
and  sometimes  the  praying  mantis,  from  the  position  in 
which  it  is  usually  found.     This  insect  is  of  considerable 
size  ;  the  elytra,  or  wing-cases  are  of  a  bright  green  color, 
and  on  each  of  the  wings  there  is  a  black  spot. 

150.  The  common  posture  of  the  mantis  is  that  of  rest- 
ing on   its  hind-legs,  and   erecting  its  fore-feet,  holding 
them  close  together,  and  giving  them  a  quick  motion,  as 
if,  as  some  say,  it  was  in  the  act  of  praying,  Fig.  41. 

Fig.  41. 


Hence  among  certain  people,  this  creature,  has  been  held 
in  great  veneration  from  time  immemorial.  It  has  been 
supposed  to  tell  fortunes,  forewarn  of  evils,  and  to  do 
many  other  things,  according  to  the  vividness  of  super- 
stitious imaginations.  Dr.  Moufet,  who  wrote  a  work 
in  folio,  on  insects,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  very  seriously 
tells  us  of  this  insect,  that  "  they  are  called  mantes,  that 
is,  fortune-tellers,  either  because  by  their  coming  they  do 
show  the  spring  to  be  at  hand,  so  Anacreon,  the  poet 
sang ;  or  else  they  foretel  death,  or  famine,  as  Cselius,  the 
scholiast  of  Theocritus  writes ;  or,  lastly,  because  it  al- 
ways holds  up  its  fore-feet  like  hands  praying,  as  it  were, 
after  the  manner  of  their  diviners,  who,  in  that  gesture,  did 
pour  out  their  supplications  to  their  gods.  So  divino  a 
creature  is  this  esteemed,  that  if  a  child  asks  the  way  to 
such  a  place,  she  will  stretch  out  one  of  her  feet,  and  show 


56  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

him  the  right  way,  and  seldom  or  never  misses.  As  she 
resembleth  these  diviners  in  the  elevation  of  her  hands,  so 
also,  in  likeness  of  motion,  for  they  do  not  sport  themselves 
as  others  do,  nor  leap,  nor  play,  but  walking  softly,  she 
returns  again  modestly,  and  shows  forth  a  kind  of  mature 
gravity."  This  is  only  the  position  of  the  mantis  that  it 
takes  to  catch  its  prey. 

151.  The  praying  position  and  soft  modesty  of  this 
insect,  which  charity  and  superstition  thus  metamorphosed 
into  kindness  and  virtue,  by  a  more  attentive  examination 
of  its  habits,  prove  to  be  nothing  more  than  cunning  de- 
vices to  secure  its  prey,  being  one  of  the  most  cruel  and 
voracious  of  all  the  insect  tribe.  The  patience  of  the 
mantis,  says  Bingley,  in  waiting  for  its  prey,  is  remarka- 
ble, and  the  posture  to  which  superstition  has  attributed 
devotion,  is  no  other  than  the  means  used  to  catch  it. 
When  it  has  fixed  its  eye  on  an  insect,  it  rarely  loses 
sight  of  it,  though  it  may  cost  some  hours  to  accomplish 
its  destruction.  If  it  see  an  insect  a  little  beyond  its 
reach,  over  its  head,  it  slowly  erects  its  long  thorax,  then 
resting  on  the  posterior  legs,  it  gradually  raises  the  ante- 
rior also.  If  this  brings  it  near  enough  to  the  insect,  it 
throws  open  the  last  joint  of  its  fore-paws,  and  snaps 
the  object  between  the  spines  that  are  set  in  rows  on  the 
second  joint.  If  it  is  unsuccessful,  the  paws  are  not  re- 
tracted, but  still  held  forth  waiting  for  the  victim  to 
come  again  within  its  reach.  Should  the  insect  go  far 
from  the  spot,  the  mantis  flies,  or  crawls  after  it,  slowly, 
like  a  cat. 

152.  Observations  of  Roesel. — Roesel,  the  naturalist, 
desiring  to  study  the  character  and  habits  of  this  curious 
creature,  put  some  of  the  eggs  into  a  glass  case  until 
they  hatched.  The  young  ones  immediately  displayed 
the  most  savage  disposition  toward  each  other,  but 
Roesel  supplying  them  with  flies,  which  they  tore  in 
pieces  and  devoured' with  avidity,  he  in  this  way  saved 
some  of  his  brood  for  a  time.  But  notwithstanding  he 
supplied  them  well  with  insects,  they  continued  to  de- 
vou:  each  other  apparently  through  wantonness.  Des- 
pairing at  last  of  rearing  any  of  them  to  the  winged 
state,  he  separated  them  into  small  companies,  under 


MANTIS. 


57 


different  glasses,  hoping  in  this  way  to  render  them  more 
pacific.  But  still  the  strongest  in  each  little  community, 
with  the  same  savage  disposition  as  before,  tore  in  pieces 
the  weaker. 

153.  Finally,  he  put  a  pair  of  these   insects,  full  grown, 
into    a   glass  case,  and  having   taken   the  precaution  of 
first   supplying  them   with  food,  watched    their   actions. 
But  no  sooner  did  they  espy  each  other,  than  they  stood 
stiff  and  motionless,  each  eying  the  other  with  an  air  of 
the  sternest  defiance.     In  this   posture   did   they  remain 
for  many  minutes,  when  the  whole  frame  of  each  became 
violent  agitated ;  their  necks  were  elevated,  their  wings 
expanded,   and   in  this   state   they   rushed   toward   each 
other  with  the  utmost  fury,  and  hewed  away  with  their 
sharp,  sabre-like  fore  feet,  like,  says  Roesel,  a  couple  of 
infuriated  Hussars. 

154.  Barrow,   the   traveller,   states  that   the    Chinese 
keep  these  insects  in  separate  bamboo  canes,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  seeing  them  fight,  as  other  people  do  game-cocks ; 
and  that  in  the  summer  months,  scarcely  a  boy  is  seen  in 
the  streets,  without  a  cage  of  these  ferocious  warriors ;  a 
practice  as  barbarous  with  respect  to  these  animals,  as  it  is 
humiliating  to  human  beings. 


Fig.  42. 


155.  Follicle  of  the  Mantis. —  The  case,  or  sort  of  fol- 
licle which  the  mantis  constructs  to  contain  her  eggs  is  not 
the  least  curious  thing  belong* 
ing  to  this  famous  insect.  This 
case  is  about  two  inches  long, 
of  a  yellow  color,  of  a  texture- 
like  parchment,  and  curiously 
reticulated,  or  waved  on  the  out- 
side. The  shape  is  that  of  a 
double  cone  united  at  their  bases. 
It  is  fixed  to  the  stalk  of  some 
plant,  as  seen  by  Fig.  42. 

Along  one  side  there  is  a 
kind  of  suture  through  which  the 
young  escape  as  they  are  hatched, 
the  figure  showing  some  of  them 
in  this  act. 


58 


MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS 


156.  The  eggs  are  very  numerous,  and 
are  ananged  in  rows,  as  seen  by  Fig.  43, 
which  is  a  tranverse  section  of  42.  One 
of  these  follicles  being  sent  to  Roesel,  he 
observed  that  a  double  row  of  egg-like 
bodies  sprouted  up  in  close  contact  with 
each  other  in  a  furrow,  which  divide  the  egg  case  longi- 
tudinally; these  little  eminences  soon  became  animated, 
for  out  of  them  he  perceived  the  little  mantes  struggling 
to  escape.  As  soon  as  the  one  has  succeeded  in  freeing 
itself  from  the  egg,  it  ran  off  with  the  agility  of  an  ant, 
which  it  resembled  in  form  and  nimbi  eness. 


MUSQUITO. 

157.  The  general  appearance  and  habits  of  the  mus- 
quito  are  too  well  known  to  need  description.     It  belongs 
to  the  order  diptera,  that  is,  double-winged,  these  tribes 
having  only  two  wings,  of  which  the  common  house-fly  is 
another  example. 

158.  The  gnat  and  musquito  belong  to   the  same  spe- 
cies, the  latter  being  only  a  large  variety  of  the  former. 
The  larvse  of  these  insects  in  the  wa/m  season,  are  common 
in  all  stagnant  pools  and  ditches.     Even  a  small  vessel  of 
water,  if  allowed  to  stand  still,  will   soon  exhibit  these 
little  beings  diving  and  swimming  about  in  all  directions, 
generally  with  their  head  downward.     They  are,  howev- 
er, obliged  often  to  rise  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  being 
furnished  with  a  small  cylindrical  tube  for  this  purpose. 

159.  Changes  of  the  Musquito  in   the  Water. —  The 
musquito    undergoes    several    metamorphoses 

before  it  leaves  the  water.  .  The  larva,  at  first, 
is  composed  of  nine  segments,  each  of  which 
is  furnished  with  a  number  of  fine  cilia  on  both 
sides,  as  shown  by  Fig.  44,  which  is  a  magni- 
fied view  of  the  insect. 

160.  After  having  thrice  changed  its  skin, 
as  it  increases  in  size,  it  appears  in  a  sort  of 
lenticular,  or  bean-like  form,  as  shown  by  Fig. 
45      In  this  state  it  is  still  capable  of  moving 
briskly   through   the   water,   in   the  manner 


Fig.  44. 


MUSQUETO.  CO 

of  the  lobster,  that  is,  by         Fi§-  45-  FiS- 46- 

alternately  contracting  and 

expanding  the    body,    and 

striking  the   fluid   with  its 

fins  and  tail,  as  shown  by 

Fig.  46. 

161.  In  this  stage  of  its  progress,  it  takes  no  food,  having 
neither  mouth  nor  organs   of  digestion ;  but  a  plentiful 
supply  of  air   seems  to  be  indispensable,    and  hence  it 
floats  on  the  surface  of  the    water,   and   only   descends 
when  disturbed.      In  every  stagnant  pool,  thousands  of 
them  may  be  seen,  at  the  proper  season,  in  this  state  of 
repose.     Their  respiratory  organs  are  two  ear-like  pro- 
cesses shown  by  the  adjoining  figures,  and  these  are  kept 
above  the  surface  of  the  water  until  another  change  is 
about  to  ensue. 

162.  Musqueto  leaving  the  water. — When  the  musqueto 
is  about  to  emerge,  and  to  take  the  station  and  form  of  a 
perfect  being,  it  stretches  out  its  body  at  full  length  on 
the   surface   of    the   water,    and    then    by   some   secret 
mechanism  puffs  up  its  skin  so  as  to  split  it  open  at  the 
head.     As  soon  ,as  this  fissure  is  sufficiently  large  for  the 
purpose,  the  insect  in  perfect  form,  appears.     And  now 
the  condition  of  the  little  adventurer  is  critical,   and  per- 
ilous in  the  extreme,  for,  from  being  an   aquatic,  it  is  sud- 
denly transformed  into  an  air-breather ;  and  after  having 
spent  all  his  past  life   as   a  sailor,  he  is  in   a  twinkling 
turned  landsman,  perhaps  far  from  the  shore,  and  hav- 
ing no  other  boat  but  his  own  skin,  with  neither  oar  nor 
sail,  for  he  has  no  use  of  either  leg  or  wing.     If,  at  this 
juncture,   a   little   breeze   comes    on,    it   proves  a   most 
dreadful  hurricane  to  the  poor  animal,  for  if  a  drop  of 
water  gets  into  the  case,  which  has  FiS-  47- 

now  become  a  canoe,  .it  inevitably 
sinks  and  carries  the  insect  down 
with  it.  This  hazardous  situation  is 
shown  by  Fig.  47,  which  exhibits  a 
magnified  picture  of  the  Musqueto 
just  taking  its  departure  into  its  new| 
element.  Reaumur,  who  saw  every 
thing  which  nature  exhibits  with  respect  to  this  insect 


60  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

speaks  of  the  peril  of  this  moment  in  the  following  lan- 
guage :  "  When  the  observer  perceives  how  much  the 
prow  of  the  little  bark  sinks,  and  how  near  its  sides  are 
to  the  water,  he  forgets  for  the  moment,  that  the  gnat  is 
an  insect,  which,  at  any  other  time,  he  would  destroy ; 
nay,  he  becomes  anxious  for  its  fate,  and  the  more  so  if 
the  slightest  breeze  plays  on  the  surface  of  the  water ; 
the  least  agitation  of  the  air  being  sufficient  to  wraft  the 
creature  with  swiftness  from  place  to  place,  and  to  make 
it  spin  round  and  round.  Its  body  folded  in  its  wings, 
bears  a  greater  proportion  to  the  little  skiff,  than  the 
largest  mass  of  sail  to  a  ship  ;  it  is  impossible  not  to 
dread  lest  the  insect  should  be  wrecked  ;  once  laid  on 
its  side  on  the  water,  there  is  no  escape.  Generally, 
however,  all  terminates  favorably,  and  the  danger  is  over 
in  a  minute." 

STRUCTURE    OF    INSECTS. 

163.  Having  detailed  the  steps  by  \vhich  nature  pro- 
duces a  perfect  insect  from  the  egg,  and  shown  also  how 
these  natural  processes  vary  in  several  different  orders  and 
species,  it  is  now  proper  to  say  something  of  the  struc- 
ture of  these  beings,  in  order  to  show  by  what  means  they 
perform  the  functions  of  life. 

164.  Insects,  as  we  have  seen,  and  as  common  observa- 
tion evinces,  vary  exceedingly  in  their  forms,  habits,  and 
dispositions,  and  they  must  consequently  vary  in  respect 
to  their  structure,  since  each    species  must  be  furnished 
with  organs   and   instruments   by   which   it   is  precisely 
adapted  to  the   situation    and  condition   in   wrhich    it   is 
placed.     But  although  there  is  so  much  variety  in  their 
appearance,   all    insects  consist   of  only  three   principal 
parts,  viz,  the  head,  trunk,  and  abdomen. 

165.  In  order  to  illustrate  this  subject,  we  will  take  one 
of  the  beetle-tribe,  and  divide  it  into  sections,  and  by  means 
of  plans  show  the  names  and  uses  of  the  several  parts. 
The  insect  here  represented,  is  the  carabus  sycophanta} 

What  are  the  principal  sections  of  an  insect  ? 


STRUCTURE   OF   INSECTS.  61 

Fig.  48,  and  may  stand  as  a  type  of  all  the  other  beetles, 
since  they  do  not  differ  in  Fig.  48. 

their  structures.  This  spe- 
cimen is  of  the  natural 
size,  but  the  sections  are 
somewhat  magnified,  that 
the  smaller  parts  may  be 
more  distinctly  seen. 

166.  The  head  c,  Fig. 
49,  contains  the  principal 
enlargement  of  the  ner- 
vous system,  or  the  brain, 
the  scull  or  cranium  being 
usually  the  hardest  part  of 
the  insect.  To  the  head 
are  attached  the  antennae, 
and  instruments  of  masti- 
cation. The  latter  are  much  more  complicated  in  insects 
than  in  larger  animals.  Those  which  divide  their  food, 
have  a  double  set  of  jaws,  called  mandibles  and  maxilla, 
beside  which,  there  are  four  other  moveable  pieces 
called  palpi,  and  labial  palpi.  The  mandibles,  or  upper 
jaws,  m,  cut  the  food ;  the  lower,  or  proper  jaws,  j9  mas- 
ticate it ;  the  palpi,  p,  and  the  labial  palpi,  /,  appear  to 
be  instruments  of  sense  by  which  the  insect  judges  of 
the  quality  of  its  food.  The  motions  of  all  these  parts, 
are  horizontal,  and  not  vertical  as  with  us,  and  other  ani- 
mals having  incumbent  maxillae.  To  obtain  an  idea  of  the 
motions  and  uses  of  these  parts,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
watch  an  insect  for  a  few  moments  while  feeding. 
Fig.  49. 


167.  The  trunk,  or  thorax,  is  composed  of  three  parts, 


What  are  the  jaws  of  insects  called  ?  What  other  pieces  belong  to  the 
mouths  of  insects  ?  What  are  the  uses  of  the  mandibles  and  proper  jaws  ? 
What  are  the  uses  of  the  palpi  ? 

6 


62 


MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 


coexisting  of  the  three  segments,  figures  50,  51,  and  52. 
The   first  is  called  the  prothorax,  Fig    50,  to  which  is 


connected  the  first  pair  of  legs.     The  second,  Fig.  51, 
is  called  the  mesothorax,  and  gives  origin  to  the  second 


Fig.  51. 


pair  of  legs  and  the  first  pair  of  wings,  or  the  elytra,  c. 

168.  The  third  section  is  the  metathorax,  Fig.  52.  This 
part  sustains  the  third  pair  of  legs  and  the  second  pair 


of  wings,  or  the  wings  proper,  w.     These  two  last  seg- 


How  many  sections  is  the  trunk  of  an  insect  composed  of?  On  what 
principle  are  the  limbs  of  insects  named  ?  What  are  the  names  of  the 
different  parts  of  one  of  these  limbs,  and  what  are  their  relative  situa- 
tions? 


STRUCTURE    OF    INSECTS. 


63 


merits  are  closely  united,  but  the  natural  distinction  between 
them  is  marked  by  a  transverse  line. 

169.  The  third  principal  division  is  the  abdomen.  Fig. 
53.     This   in  the   instance    before 

us,  is  composed  of  six  complete, 
and  three  imperfect  segments,  but 
these  segments  vary  in  number  in 
different  insects,  from  three  or  four, 
to  twelve  or  more.  These  segments 
all  have  a  ligamentous  connexion 
with  each  other,  allowing  free  mo* 
tion  in  all  directions. 

170.  The  limbs  of  insects   are 

named  from  their  supposed  analogy  to  corresponding  parts 
in  the  higher  order  of  animals.  Thus  the  haunch,  h,  cor- 
responds to  the  hip-bone  of  quadrupeds ;  the  trochanter,  t, 
to  the  head  of  the  thigh-bone  ;  the  femur,/,  to  the  thigh- 
bone itself ;  the  tibia,  s,  to  the  bones  of  the  leg ;  and  the 
tarsus,  r,  to  those  of  the  foot. 

171.  It  is  perhaps  unnecessary,  in  a  work  like  the  pres- 
ent, to  give  a  detailed  account  of  the  peculiar  mechanism, 
motions,  and  uses  of  each  of  these  parts.     The  limbs  of  in- 
sects down  to  the  feet,  may  be  considered  as  acting  in  a 
manner  analogous  to  our  own.    The  feet  have  peculiarities 
to  which  there  is  no  analogy  in  other  animals,  and  which, 
therefore,  must  receive  further  notice. 

172.  The  legs  of  most  insects  diverge,  so  as  to  reach 
considerably  beyond  their  bodies  on  each  side,  thus  giving 
them  a  firmer  support,  by  throwing  the  centre  of  gravity 
far  within  the  base.     When  the  legs  are  very  long,  the 
insect,  therefore,  appears  rather  suspended,  than  supported 
by  them,  contrary  to  what  obtains  in  quadrupeds  and  man, 
where  the  feet  are  immediately  below  the  points  where  the 
legs  are  connected  with  the  body. 

173.  In  insects,  the  last  joint  of  the  tarsus  is  generally 
terminated  by  a  claw,  sometimes  single,  and  sometimes 
double,  and  by  which  the  foot  is  fastened  in  walking  to 
any  surface  which  is  in  the  least  degree  rough,  or  unequal. 
By  these  hooks,  insects  also  suspend  themselves  on  perpen- 
dicular surfaces,  or  with  their  backs  downward,  this  being 

By  what  means  do  insects  walk  on  rough  surfaces  * 


64  MECHANICAL  FUNCTIONS. 

from  the  mechanism  of  these  parts,  the  most  easy  position 
they  can  take.  The  beetle  tribe,  and  the  grasshoppers, 
are  furnished  with  this  apparatus.  They  cannot  climb 
up  smooth  surfaces,  as  a  polished  door,  or  a  pane  of  glass, 
their  hooks  being  useless,  without  some  degree  of  rough- 
ness. 

174.  Some  insects  walk   by  atmospheric  pressure. — 
Other  insects  are  furnished  with  a  curious  and  somewhat 
complicated  apparatus,  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  walk 
not  only  upon  rough,  but  also  upon  the  smoothest  surfaces, 
even  with  their  backs  downward.     It  is  well  known,  that 
the  common  house-fly  (inusca  domestica),  prefers  this  posi- 
tion to  all  others,  for  the  purpose  of  repose.     Hence  we 
may  infer,  that  this  is  the  easiest  position  the  insect  can 
take,  and  therefore  the  one  which  requires  the  least  mus* 
cular  exertion. 

175.  There  has  been  much  diversity  of  opinion  among 
naturalists,  by  what  means  these  insects  are  able  thus  to 
suspend  themselves  on  surfaces  entirely  smooth,  with  so 
much  ease  as  to  prefer  this  position  for  sleeping.     Dr. 
Derham,  in  his  Physico-Theology,  speaking  on  this  sub- 
ject, says,  that   "  divers   flies    and    other  insects,  beside 
their    sharp-hooked    nails,    have    also    skinny   palms  to 
their  feet,  to  enable  them  to  stick   on  glass   and  other 
smooth  bodies  by  means  of  the   pressure  of   the   atmo- 
sphere, after  the  manner  I  have  seen  boys  carry  heavy 
stones  with  only  a  wet  piece  of  leather   clapped  on  the 
top   of   the    stone."      This    theory    acquired    additional 
weight,  or  rather  was  confirmed  in  the  opinions  of  most 
entomologists   by  the  elaborate    and    celebrated    experi- 
ments of   Sir  Everard  Home,  in  which  he  was  assisted 
by  the    microscopic  observations,  and    drawings   of  M. 
Bauer. 

176.  Dr.  Roget,  in  his  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiol- 
ogy, one  of  the    most   recently  published    "  Bridgewater 
Treatises,"  has   given  the   following   description  of  this 
curious  mechanism  : — 

177.  Mechanism  of  the  foot  of  the  House-Fly. — In  the 
house-fly,  that  part  of  the  last  joint  of  the  tarsus,  which 

Why  cannot  they  walk  on  smooth  surfaces  » 


alltUCTUUE    OF    INSECTS.  65 

is  immediately  under  the  root  of  the  claw,  has  two 
suckers  appended  to  it  by  a  narrow,  funnel-shaped  neck, 
moveable  by  muscles  in  all  direc-  Fig.  54. 

tions.  These  suckers  are  shown  in  v 
Fig.  54,  which  represent  the  under 
side  of  the  foot  of  the  blue-bottle  fly 
(musca  vomttoria),  with  the  suckers 
expanded.  The  sucking  part  of  the 
apparatus  consists  of  a  membrane  ca- 
pable of  contraction  and  extension, 
and  the  edges  of  which  are  serrated, 
so  as  to  fit  them  for  the  closest  appli- 
cations to  any  kind  of  surface.  In  the  horse-fly,  each 
foot  is  furnished  with  three  suckers. 

178.  Mechanism  in  the  Saw-Fly. —  In  the  yellow  saw- 
fly  (cimbex  lutea),  there  are  four  suckers,  of  which  one 
is  placed  upon  the  under  surface  of  each  of-  the  first  joints 

Fig.  55- 


of  the  toes,  Fig.  55.     All  the  feet  of  this  insect  are  thus 
provided.     Both  of  these  figures  are  highly  magnified. 

179.  The  mode  in  which  these  suckers  operate  may  be 
distinctly  seen,  by  observing  with  a  magnifying  glass  the 
actions  of  a  large  blue-bottle  fly  in  the  inside  of  a  glass 
tumbler.  A  fly,  by  the  application  of  this  apparatus, 
will  remain  suspended  from  the  ceiling,  with  his  back 
downward,  for  any  length  of  time,  without  the  least 
exertion ;  for  the  weight  of  the  body  pulling  against  the 
suckers,  serves  to  make  them  adhere  stronger,  for  the  same 
reason  that  a  boy's  leather  sucker  adheres  more  forcibly 
in  lifting  a  large  stone  than  a  small  one.  For  this  reason 
it  is,  that  house-flies  prefer  the  ceiling  to  an  upper  surface 
as  a  place  of  rest. 


In  what  manner  is  it  said  the  house  fly  adheres  to  the  under  surfaces  ot 

smooth  bodies? 

6* 


66  MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

180.  Doubts  concerning  this  Mechanism. — Notwith- 
standing it  would  thus  appear,  that  there  could  be  no  doubt 
with  respect  to  the  manner  in  which  flies  are  enabled  to  ad- 
here to  smooth  surfaces,  yet  some  entomologists  still  doubt 
whether  the  feet  of  these  insects  really  contain  any  organs 
which  adhere  by  suction.  If  flies  adhere  by  the  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere,  then,  if  the  atmosphere  be  removed,  it 
is  said,  they  would  be  unable  to  walk  on  a  smooth,  per- 
pendicular surface.  To  demonstrate  this,  house-flies  were 
put  into  the  glass  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  and  the  air 
exhausted,  when  it  is  said,  "  it  was  demonstrated  to  the 
entire  satisfaction  of  several  intelligent  gentlemen  present, 
that  the  house-fly,  while  it  retains  its  vital  powers  unim- 
paired, cannot  only  traverse  the  upright  sides,  but  even 
the  interior  of  the  dome  of  an  exhausted  receiver,  and 
that  the  cause  of  its  relaxing  its  hold,  and  ultimately 
falling  from  the  station  it  occupied,  was  a  diminution  of 
muscular  force,  attributable  to  impeded  respiration."  In 
consequence  of  such  experiments,  it  has  been  proposed  to 
account  for  the  phenomena  observed,  by  the  secretion  of 
an  adhesive  matter  with  which  the  foot  of  the  fly,  or  the 
hairs  on  it  are  imbued.  The  advocates  for  this  mode  say, 
that  they  have  facts  on  this  subject,  which  are  quite  in- 
explicable, except  on  the  supposition  that  an  adhesive 
secretion  is  emitted  by  the  instruments  employed  in  climb- 
ing. We  are,  however,  rather  inclined  to  the  belief  that 
these  insects  adhere  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere, 
as  was  so  clearly  shown  by  the  observations  of  Sir  E. 
Home. 


INGENUITY   OF    INSECTS. 

181.  There  are  some  traits  in  the  characters  and  habits 
of  certain  insects,  which  appear  so  much  like  the  cun- 
ning ingenuity,  and  contrivance  of  the  higher  order  of 
animals,  that  we  cannot  see  why  they  have  not  an  equn! 


What  experiment  seems  to  make  it  doubtful  whether  flies  adhere  \,y  i  he- 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere?  What  is  the  conclusion  of  the  author  with 
respect  to  the  means  by  which  flies  adhere  to  smooth  surfaces  ?  What  is 
meant  by  the  ingenuity  of  insects  ? 


INGENUITY    OF    INSECTS.  67 

claim  to  those  attributes.  We  do  not  here  allude  to  that 
instinctive  endowment  which  guides  the  different  species 
to  deposite  their  eggs  in  places  where  the  young  when 
hatched,  perhaps  many  months  afterward,  will  immedi- 
ately find  the  aliment  best  adapted  to  their  condition ; 
nor  to  that  apparent  foreknowledge  with  respect  to  time, 
by  which  there  is  a  precise  adaptation  in  the  state  of  the 
plant  to  the  want  of  the  young  larva;  for  these  are 
mysteries  of  which  we  can  say  nothing,  except  that  they 
are  the  means  which  the  Creator  has  taken  to  perpetuate 
his  works. 

182.  By  the  ingenuity  of  insects,  we  mean  that  endow- 
ment by  which  they  plan   and  execute  various  structures 
for  convenience,  or  comfort,  and  which  are  varied  accord- 
ing to  circumstances ;   and  also  the  devices  which  they 
employ  for  the  purpose  of  entrapping,  or  escaping  each 
other. 

183.  Ingenuity  of  Spiders. — Thus  one  species  of  spider 
constructs  her  net  for  catching  game,  in  a  place  where 
she  thinks  such  flies  as  best  suit  her  appetite  are  most 
likely  to  come ;   and  being  sensible  that  her  presence  is 
frightful  to  those  insects  which  she  would  make  her  vic- 
tims, she  takes  the  precaution  to  conceal  herself  with  far 
more  cunning  than  the  cat,  or  even  the  tiger.     The  spi- 
der having  finished  its  game-net,  next  goes  to  work  to 
make  a  place  of  ambush,  where  it  can  repose  in  com- 
fort, until  some  poor  fly,  not  seeing  the  trap,  gets  entan- 
gled in  it.     The  place  of  ambush  is  some  sly  crevice  at  a 
distance  from  the  net.     In  this  it  constructs  a  tube  of 
silk,  the  entrance  of  which  is  no  larger  than  absolutely 
necessary,  and  is  often  entirely  concealed  from  external 
view.     This  is  constructed  somewhat  like  a  sack  with  a 
small  mouth,  the   interior  being   enlarged,   so   that   the 
inmate  can  stretch  out  its  limbs,  and  turn  around  with 
facility.     But  that  the  cunning  insect  may  not  be  under 
the  necessity  of  watching  continually  at  the  mouth  of  its 
ambuscade,  it  carries  a   cord  from  some  convenient  part 
of  it  to  the  net,  and  having  carefully  fastened  both  ends, 
retires  to  wait   the  result   of  its  craftiness.      The  least 
motion  of  the  game-net  instantly  brings  the   owner   to 
the  mouth  of  its  ambuscade,  the  news  being  conveyed 


MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

by  the  cord  stretched  between  them.  If  it  proves  to 
be  some  luckless  fly,  which  has  caused  the  alarm,  the 
voracious  spider  mounts  the  cord,  and  in  another 
instant  may  be  seen  tying  the  legs,  and  wings  of  its  vic- 
tim, with  the  utmost  eagerness  and  art,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  possibility  of  escape.  Having  thus  secured  its  prey, 
it  sucks  its  blood  at  leisure,  and  then  retires  and  waits  for 
another  haul. 

184.  If  craftiness,  ingenuity,  and  contrivance,  are  not  ex- 
hibited in  such  proceedings  as  these,  we  know  not  where 
to  find  them  in  the  animal  kingdom.     Any  one  by  watch- 
ing  a  common  house-spider  may  convince  himself  of  the 
truth  of  our  statement. 

185.  The  ingenuity  with  which  spiders  contrive  to  es- 
cape when  surrounded  by  water,  is  sometimes  highly  curi- 
ous and  interesting.     Mr.  Kirby  placed  a  large  field-spider 
upon  a  stick  about  a  foot  long  set  in   a  vessel  of  wrater. 
After  fastening  its  thread  at  the  top  of  the  stick,  it  crept 
down  the  side  until  it  came  to  the  water,  then  immedi- 
ately swinging  from  the  stick  which  was  slightly  bent, 
it   climbed    again   to  the   top.     This   it   repeated   many 
times,  still  finding  its  retreat  cut  off,   and  no  means  of 
escaping  in  that  manner.     At  length  it  let  itself  down 
from  the  top  of  the  stick,  not  by  a  single  thread,  but  by 
two,  each  distant  from  the  other  about  the  twelfth  of  an 
inch,  guided,  as  usual,  by  one  of  its  hind  feet,  one  of  the 
threads  being  apparently  smaller  than  the  other.     When 
it  had  suffered  itself  to  descend  nearly  to  the  surface  of 
the  water,   it  stopped   short,    and   by  some   means  not 
apparent,  broke  off  close  to  the  spinners,  the  smallest 
thread,  which  still  adhering  to  the  top  of  the  stick,  float- 
ed in  the   air,   and  wras   so  light  as  to  be  moved  by  the 
slightest  breath.     This  thread  catching  on  an  object  at  a 
little  distance,  the  spider  employed  it  as  a  bridge  to  n.  ake 
its  escape. 

186.  But  the  ingenuity  and  resources  of  this  tribe  oi 
insects  are    so  well  known,  that  we   will  not  multiply 
more  instances. 

187.  Ingenuity  of  the  Caddis-Worm. — A  little  insect. 
or  worm  common  in  fresh-water  brooks,  called  the  caddis- 
worm,   and  well  known  to  anglers,  builds  for  itself  a 


INGENUITY   OF    INSECTS.  69 

house,  or  tube,  in  which  it  lives,  of  most  singular  and 
curious  workmanship. 

The  body  of  this  insect  is 
composed  of  nine  sections,  the 
sides  of  which  are  fringed  with 
cilia,  or  paddles.  The  legs 
are  six,  all  situated  near  the 
head,  as  shown  by  Fig.  56, 
which  represents  the  creature  naked,  or  without  its 
case. 

188.  It  may  be  observed  that  this  worm,  though  it  is 
entirely  aquatic,  is  still  not  well  adapted  to  swimming.    Its 
six  legs  all  close  together  are  specifically  -heavier   than 
water,  and  its  long  body  beset  only  with  a  few   hairs, 
would  appear  better  fitted  to  crawl  than  to  swim.     But 
apparently    as  a    compensation    for    these    defects,    the 
great  Author  of  nature  has  endowed  it  with  a  degree  of 
instinctive  knowledge,  by  means  of  which,  it  is  able  to 
avoid  the  evils  which  would  otherwise  arise  from  its  con- 
struction. 

189.  The  caddis-wTorm  constructs  for  itself  a  tube  or 
habitation,  by  means  of  such  materials  as  it  can  most 
easily  obtain,  and  which  are  fitted  to  its  pur-      Fig.  57. 
pose.     Leaves,  straws,  bits  of  wood,  and  shells 

are  employed  according  to  the  taste,  or  con- 
venience of  the  builder.  Fig.  57  shows  one 
of  these  cases  made  of  a  few  pieces  of  leaves, 
so  arranged  as  somewhat  to  imitate  a  Spanish 
mantle,  the  head  and  feet  of  the  insect  pro- 
truding at  the  upper  end.  This,  like  all  the 
other  forms  which  it  constructs,  is  lined  with  a  kind  of 
silk  on  the  inside,  and  it  is  by  means  of  the  same  substance 
that  the  different  pieces  of  which  these  curious  habitations 
are  made  and  fastened  together. 

190.  By  Fig.  58  is  shown  the  worm  *%•  58. 

covered  by  a  couple  of  pieces  of  semi- 
cylindrical,  hollow  bark,  cemented  to- 
gether.  Happening  to  find  two  such 
pieces  suitable  for  the  purpose,  it  has 
been  saved  the  labor  of  joining  more, 
as  most  of  its  brethren  have  done 


70  MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS. 

191.  Fig.  59  represents  another  of  Fig,  59- 
these  genuises  enveloped  in  a  riband, 

made   of  pieces   of  leaves  joined  to- 
gether, and  rolled  on  like  a  bandage, 
the  folds  being  laid  with  as  much  re- 
gard to  symmetry  and  skill,  as  the  neatest  surgeon  displays 
in  dressing  a  limb. 

192.  Sometimes  these  mantles  are  constructed  with  small 
shells  cemented  together,  as  seen  by  Fig.  60.     These  shells 
are  commonly  empty,  but  it  seems  the  Fig.  g0. 
builder  does  not  always  wait  for  this, 

sometimes  employing  living  snails, 
when  their  sizes  happen  to  suit  his 
wants. 

193.  It  appears  that  this  insect,  when  out  of  its  case, 
can  do  little  more  than  crawl   along  the  bottom  of  the 
brook,  where  it  lives.     But  when  clothed  in  the  manner 
represented,  it  floats  along  near  the  surface,  or  sinks  toward 
the  bottom  at  pleasure,  generally  retaining  the  perpendicu- 
lar position,  but  changing  it  to  the  horizontal,  or  turning 
t  je  head  downward,  at  will.     These  different  positions,  as 
well  as  some  motion  in  any  direction,  the  insect  gains  by 
using  its  feet  as  paddles,  these  parts  being  always  out  of 
the  case  and  free. 

194.  But  the  most  wonderful  point  in  this  history  is  the 
judgment  involved   in  the  selection  of  materials,  which, 
when  united  to  the  body  of  the  insect,  will  exactly  coun- 
terpoise the  whole,  so  that  it  neither  rises  to  the  surface, 
nor  sinks  to  the  bottom,  but  may  be  made  to  do  either  by 
the  small  degree  of  force  exerted  by  the  feet. 

195.  A  vast  number  of  instances  might  be  selected  of  the 
ingenuity,  craft,  and  seeming  discretion  of  the  insect  tribes, 
especially  of  the  bee,  ant,  spider,  and  wasp,  but  for  these, 
we  must  refer  the  reader  to  works  on  Entomology. 


What  is  said  to  be  the  most  wonderful  point  in  the  history  of  the  caddis- 
worm? 


PART   II. 


VERTEBRATED  ANIMALS 


196.  VERTEBRA,  signifies  "  back  bone,  and  the  animals 
which  come  next  to  the  insects  in  the  scale  of  organi- 
zation,  are   called  vertebrated,  that   is,  they  have   back 
bones. 

197.  The  animals  we  have  heretofore  examined  consist 
of  those  which  have  no  hard  parts,  as  the  'polypi,  or  those 
covered  with  shells,  as  the  mollusca,  or  with  a  crust,  as  the 
Crustacea,  or  such  as  pass  from  the  soft  to  a  more  consistent 
state,  as  the  insecta. 

198.  None  of  these  animals  possess  an  internal  solid 
frame-work  to  support  and  connect  the  softer  parts,  this 
kind  of  structure  being  reserved  for  animals  of  the  higher 
orders,  and  more  complex  organizations. 

199.  "  If,"  says  Roget,  "  it  be  pleasing  to  trace  the  foot- 
steps of  nature  in  constructions  so  infinitely  varied  as  those 
of  the  lower  animals,  and  to  follow  the  gradations  of  as- 
cent from  the  zoophyte  to  trie  winged  insect,  wrhich  ex 
nibits  the  greatest  perfection  compatible  with  the  restricted 
dimensions  of  that  class  of  beings,  still  more  interesting 
must  be  the  study  of  those  more  elaborate  efforts  of  crea 
tive  power,  which  are  displayed  on  a  wider  field  in  tht 
higher  orders  of  the  animal  kingdom.    In  the  various  tribes 
of  beings  which  are  now  to  come  before  us,  we  find  na- 
ture proceeding  to  display  more  refined  developments  in 


What  are  vertebrated  animals?    How  are  the  vertebrated  animals  espe- 
cially distinguished  from  those  we  have  already  examined? 


72  VERTEBRATED    ANIMALS. 

her  system  of  organization ;  resorting  to  new  models  of 
structure,  on  a  scale  of  greater  magnitude  than  before  ; 
devising  new  plans  of  economy,  calculated  for  more  ex- 
tended periods  of  duration;  and  adopting  new  arrange- 
ments of  organs,  fitted  for  the  exercise  of  a  higher  order 
of  faculties. 

200.  "  The  result  of  these  more  elaborate  constructions 
is  seen  in  the  vast  series  of  vertebrated  animals,  which 
comprises  a  well-marked  division  in  zoology,  compre- 
hending all  the  larger  species  that  exist  on  the  globe,  in 
whatever  climate  or  element  they  may  be  found ;  and 
including  man  himself,  placed,  as  he  unquestionably  is, 
at  the  summit  of  the  scale,  the  undisputed  lord  of  the 
creation." 

201.  "  A  remarkable  affinity  of  structure  prevails 
throughout  the  whole  of  this  extensive  assemblage  of 
beings.  Whatever  may  be  the  size,  or  external  form  of 
these  animals,  whatever  the  activity,  or  sluggishness  of 
their  movements,  whetner  inhabitants  of  the  land  or  water, 
or  the  air,  a  striking  similitude  may  be  traced  in  the  dis- 
position of  their  vital  organs,  and  in  the  construction  of 
their  solid  frame-work  or  skeletons,  which  sustains  and 
protects  their  fabric.  The  quadruped,  the  bird,  the 
tortoise,  the  serpent,  the  fish,  however  they  may  differ 
in  subordinate  details  of  organization,  yet  are  constructed 
upon  one  uniform  principle,  and  appear  like  varied  copies 
from  the  same  original  model.  In  no  instance  do  they 
present  structures  which  are  altogether  isolated,  or  can 
be  regarded  as  the  results  of  separate  and  independent 
formations." 

202.  Animals  resist  both  heat  and  cold. — But  although 
ere  is  a  general  analogy  with  respect  to  the  skeletons  of 
all  vertebrated  animals,  and  a  general  similitude  in  the 
disposition  and  construction  of  their  vital  parts,  still  there 
is  a  striking  and  wonderfyl  difference  in  the  effects  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  these  parts,  especially  vital  action, 
on  the  animal,  and  particularly  on  its  temperature ;  fur 


What  is  said  concerning  the  affinity  of  structure  which  exists  amont> 
all  animals  with  back  bones?  What  is  said  of  the  different  effects  of  vile  I 
action  on  differant  vertebrated  animals' 


VERTEBRATED    ANIMALS.  73 

while  the  fishes,  properly  so  called,  partake  the  tempera- 
ture of  water  in  which  they  live,  even  to  the  point  of  freez- 
ing ;  air-breathing  animals  have  the  power  of  resisting 
both  heat  and  cold,  and  of  preserving  nearly  the  same 
temperature,  whatever  that  may  be  in  which  they  are 
placed.  + 

203.  It  is  perhaps  true,  that  to  a  certain   degree,  all 
animals,  and   even  trees,  resist    both    heat   and    cold  so 
long  as  the  vital  principle  remains  active.     But  in  the 
lower  orders  of  animals,  this  power  is  exceedingly  feeble 
when    compared   with    that   which    endows    quadrupeds 
and  man. 

204.  Thus  eels  become  as  cold  to  the  touch  as  the  ice 
in  which  they  may  be  preserved,  and  yet  the  vital  princi- 
ple remains,  since  these  creatures  may  be  thus  kept  in  a 
torpid   state,  probably  for  any  length  of  time,  and  then 
again  revived  to  life  and  activity.     It  is  well  known,  also, 
that  the  gold-fish   may  be  frozen  with  the  water  in  its 
vase,  and  yet  by  a  slow  application  of  heat,  become  as 
lively  as  ever,  in  the  course  of  half  an  hour.     In  these 
cases,  and  many  others  which  will  be  mentioned  hereafter, 
life  is  suspended,  but   its  principle  remains,  and  although 
such  animals  do  not  preserve  their  temperature  like  those 
of  the  higher  orders,  they  are  still   endowed  with  a  much 
greater  tenacity  of  life,  for  with  a  few  exceptions,  when  a 
warm-blooded  animal   becomes   cold,  the   vital  principle 
is  not  merely  suspended,  but   is  extinct,  and  death  en- 
sues. 

205.  The  power  of  man,  and  also  of  quadrupeds  and 
birds,  to  resist  changes  of  temperature,  is  indeed  surprising. 
With  respect  to  the  power  of  animals  to  resist  low  degrees 
of  temperature,  every  one  who  resides  in  a  cold  climate, 
has  seen  abundance  of  natural  examples.     The  turkey,  for 
instance,  will    sleep  comfortably,  perched  on  a  high  tree, 
entirely  exposed  to  the  northern  blast,  when  the  thermom- 
eter is  thirty  degrees  below  zero.     Allowing  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  bird  to  be  one  hundred  degrees,  which  is  not 
above  the  truth,  then  there  is  a  difference  of  one  hundred 


What  is  said  about  the  freezing  of  eels  and  fish?  What  animals  have 
the  greatest  tenacity  of  life,  cold  or  warm-blooded?  What  difference 
sometimes  exists  between  the  temperature  of  the  turkey  and  the  air  in 
which  he  is? 

7 


74  VERTEBRATED    ANIMALS. 


and  thirty  degrees,  between  that  of  the  atmosphere  and 
that  of  the  turkey.  But  the  black  captitmouse,  a  little 
bird  which  passes  its  winter  with  us,  is  a  much  more  ex- 
traordinary instance  of  the  same  kind,  on  account  of  its 
diminutive  size.  This  bird,  as  it  flies,  does  not  probably 
weigh  more  than  half  an  ounce,  and  yet,  small  as  it  is, 
thetvital  action  with  which  it  is  endowed,  is  sufficient  to 
maintain  its  temperature  one  hundred  and  thirty  or  one 
hundred  and  forty  degrees  above  that  inwThich  it  is  placed, 
and  this  difference,  so  far  from  inducing  torpor,  seems  from 
the  cheerful  and  lively  appearance  of  the  little  animal,  to 
be  a  temperature  most  agreeable  to  it. 

206.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  found  by  accurate  experi- 
ments, that  the  animal  system  is  capable  of  resisting  de- 
grees of  heat  in  a  much  greater  proportion  above  its  own 
temperature,  than  these  are  below. 

207.  Order  of  the  Experiments  on  the  power  of  man 
to  resist  Heat. — A  circumstance  which  happened  in  France, 
in  the  year  1760,  first  led  philosophers  to  make  experiments 
on  the  power  of  the  human  system  to  resist  high  tempera- 
tures.    Some  gentlemen  having  occasion  to  use  a  public 
oven  for  certain  experiments  on  the  day  in  which  bread 
had  been  baked  in  it,  and  wishing  to  ascertain  its  tempera- 
ture, a  girl,  one  of  the  attendants  at  the  bakery,  offered  to 
go  in  and  mark  the  height  of  the  mercury  with  a  pencil. 
The   girl   smiled   at  the  hesitation  of  the    gentlemen  to 
allow  her  to  do  so,  and   going  into  the  oven,  marked  the 
temperature  at  260°  of  Fahrenheit.     Notwithstanding  the 
anxiety  they  felt  for  this  young  salamander,  she  declared 
to  their  astonishment,  that  she  felt  no  inconvenience  from1 
the  heat,  and  insisted  on  staying  longer,  and  having  re- 
mained ten   minutes,  the  thermometer  then   was  found  to 
stand  at  288°,  that  is,  76°  above  the  heat  of  boiling  wa- 
ter, and   190°  above  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  hu- 
man system,which  is  98°. 

208.  Experiments  of  Sir  Charles  Blagden  and  Dr 
Fordyce. — The  publication  of  these  facts  excited,  general 


What  circumstances  first  led  philosophers  to  make  experiments  on  the 
power  of  the  human  system  to  resist  heat?  How  much  higher  was  the 
temperature  of  the  oven  than  that  of  the  ordinary  human  system  ? 


VERTEBRATED   ANIMALS. 


75 


attention,  and  several  philosophers  made  experiments  on 
their  own  persons  with  a  view  of  testing  and  explaining 
such  a  singular  phenomenon.  Of  these  experiments, 
probably  the  most  accurate  and  decisive,  and  certainly 
the  most  famous,  were  those  of  Sir  Charles  Blagden  and 
Dr.  Fordyce.  The  room  where  these  celebrated  experi- 
ments were  made,  was  heated  by  flues,  there  being  neither 
chimney  nor  any  other  aperture  where  the  heat  might 
escape. 

209.  In  the  first  experiment,  Sir  Charles  went  in,  with 
wooden  shoes  on  his  feet,  the  heat  being  a  little  above 
that  of  boiling  water.     The  first  impression  is  described 
as  exceedingly  disagreeable,  but  in  a  few  minutes  all  this 
uneasiness  was  removed  by  the  breaking  forth  of  a  pro- 
fuse perspiration.     Having  stayed  twelve  minutes,  he  came 
out  with  a  sense  of  fatigue,  but  nothing  more,  the  ther- 
mometer then  standing  at  220°. 

210.  It  was  afterward  found  that  the  temperature  of 
260°  could  be  endured  for  a  short  time,  without  much  diffi- 
culty.    But  the  most  curious  part  of  these  experiments 
were   the  sensations   produced    by   touching   their    own 
persons  on  some  vital  part,  or  touching  each  other,  and 
also  objects  in  the  room.     Every  piece  of  metal  about 
their  persons,  as  their  watch  chains,  became  intolerably 
hot;   small  quantities  of  water  placed  in  metallic   ves- 
sels, boiled  in   a  few  minutes.      Though  the  air  of  the 
room  was  260°,  it  could  be  taken  into  the  lungs  with 
impunity,  but  the  boiling  water  in  which  the  thermome- 
ter  indicated  only    212°    scalded   the   finger    as   usual. 
Eggs  and  beef-steak  suspended  in  wire  nets,  were  com- 
pletely done  in  from  five  to  fifteen  minutes,  and  still  the 
gentlemen  were  able  to  remain  in  the  room.     But  not- 
withstanding dead  matter  became  heated  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air,  as  was  expected,  the  persons  of  the  gen- 
tlemen never  rose  higher  than  about   101°,  or  at  most 
102°,  as  indicated  by  the  thermometer,  with  the   bulb 
placed  on  the  tongue,  or  under  the  arm. 

211.  The  hands  being  at  a  distance  from  the  vital  parts, 
were  heated  to  a  much  higher  degree,  so  that  when  the 


What  were  the  degrees  of  heat  to  which  Sir  C.  Blagden  and  Dr.  For- 
dyce exposed  themselves? 


76  VERTEBRATED   ANIMALS. 

gentlemen  touched  any  part  near  the  seat  of  life,  as  the 
tongue  or  side,  it  felt  nearly  as  cold  as  a  piece  of  ice 
under  ordinary  circumstances.  Thus  though  these  per- 
sons were  in  a  temperature  of  260°,  and  even  in  some  exper- 
ments  as  high  as  264°,  the  heat  of  their  bodies  never  rose 
higher  than  102P  making  a  difference  of  160°  between 
them  and  the  air  in  which  they  were  placed. 

212.  In  what  manner  the  heat  is  carried  off". — If  we 
look  for  the  means  which  nature  displays  to  carry  awray 
the  superabundant  heat  to  which  the  system  is  exposed, 
we  shall  find  that  perspiration  is  the  most  obvious,  though 
not  the  only  one  to  which  we  can  refer.     The  boiling 
water  in  the  rooms  in  which   these   experiments   were 
made,  as  is  the  case  everywhere  at  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  never  exceeded  212  degrees,  the  remaining  heat 
being  carried  off  by  the  steam  rising  from  its  surface. 
In  like  manner  the  gentlemen  state,  that  within  a  few 
moments  after  entering  the  heated  room,  their  persons 
were  covered  with  a  profuse  perspiration,  which  contin- 
ued  as  long  as  they  stayed.     But  beside  this  cause,  the 
operation  of  heated  air  on  the  system  is  not  so  great  as 
might  be   expected  in  consequence  of  its  being  so  highly 
rarified  and  expanded,  that  comparatively  few  particles 
came  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  body.     It  has 
been  found  also,  that  the  quantity  of  oxygen   consumed 
by  the  lungs  (which  is'  the  source  of  animal  heat),  during 
these  experiments,  is  much  less  than  ordinary,  most  proba- 
bly owing  to  the  rarity  of  the  air. 

213.  It  appears  that  these  are  the  several  causes  which 
conspire  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  animal  system 
nearly  the  same  as  ordinary,  when  exposed  to  high  de- 
grees of  heat. 

STRUCTURE   OF    THE    BONY,   OR   OSSEOUS   FABRIC. 

214.  The  framework  of  all  vertebrated  animals  is  made 
of  bone,  the  appearance  of  which  we  need  not  describe. 

What  are  the  means  employed  by  nature  to  resist  high  degrees  of 
heat?  Why  is  the  temperature  of  "boiling  water  stationary  at  212  de- 
grees? 


STRUCTURE    Ob'    THE    BONE.  77 

215.  The  composition  of  bone  is  chiefly  phosphate  of 
lime,  cemented  into  a  solid  form  by  animal  matter.     On 
exposure  to  heat,  bone  becomes  black,  in  consequence  of 
the  conversion  of  this  animal  matter  into  charcoal.     In 
the  meantime  the  oil  contained  in  the  cavities  takes  fire, 
and  all  the  combustible  materials  of  which  the  bone  is 
composed,   are  consumed.      It  now    becomes  white  and 
porous,  having  by  the  process  lost  about  half  its  weight. 
What  remains,  being,  as  it  were,  the  skeleton  of  perfect 
bone,  is  phosphate  of  lime  deprived  of  its  animal  cement. 
It  is  now  so  brittle  as  to  be  broken  by  a  light  blow,  or 
even  ground  to  powder  in  a  mortar.     On  breaking  the 
bone   across,  we  are  now    able  to   discover  the  cavities 
which  contained  the  oily  matter,  and  probably  also  some 
of  those  which  contained  the  animal  cement. 

216.  On  the  contrary,  by  steeping  a  bone  in  a  quantity 
of  acid,  sufficiently  diluted  to  prevent  its  action  on  the  ani- 
mal matter,  we  may  deprive  it  of  its  phosphate  of  lime, 
and  preserve  this  matter  entire.     The  substance  remain- 
ing after  the  solid  matter  has  been  dissolved,  retains  the 
exact  form  of  the  bone,  but  is  soft,  flexible  and  elastic ; 
and  is  resolvable  into  a  jelly  by  boiling.     This  substance 
is  very  nourishing,  and  is  that  which  forms  the  soup  made 
from  bones. 

217.  The  different  mechanical  purposes  for  which  the 
bones  of  the  living  system  are  employed,  require  that  they 
should  be  of  a  great "  variety  of  forms.     Thus  the  spine, 
or  principal  support  of  all  the  vertebrata,  requiring  motion 
in    all   directions,    is   made   up   of    a   great   number    of 
pieces,  joined  together  by  a  layer  of  cartilage  between 
each  two,  which,  by  its  elasticity,  allows  of  the  required 
motions.      The   wrist   and    ankle  are  also  composed   of 
many  pieces  each,  also   allowing  of  general  motion.     On 
the  contrary,  the  limbs  acting   as  a  system  of  levers,  con- 
nected by  joints,  are  composed  of  solid,  firm  pieces,  gen- 
erally of  a  cylindrical  form,   and  of  considerable  length, 
having  motion  only  at  the  points  of  connection.     Lev- 

What  is  the  composition  of  bone  ?     Why  does  burning  bone  become 
black?     Why  does  burnt  bone   become  white  ?     When  a  bone  is  steep- 
ed in 'acid,  what  part  of  its  composition  is  destroyed?     What  is  the  ap- 
EeaYance  and  what  the  consistence  of  the  bone,  when  the  phosphate  of 
me  is  destroyed  ?     What  is  said  of  the  different  forms  of  bones  f 

7* 


78 


VEilTEBRATED   ANIMALS. 


ers  of  various  kinds,  most  artificially  and  beautifully  com- 
bined are  found  in  the  limbs  of  quadrupeds,  the  wings  of 
birds,  and  the  fins  of  fishes.  The  construction  of  these 
bones  combine  strength  and  lightness  to  an  admirable 
degree,  being  hollow  cylinders,  with  the  enlarged  end 
porous. 

218.  All  the  long  bones  of  quadrupeds,  birds,  and  man, 
are  made  on  this  principle.     When  we  come  to  the  physi- 
ology of  the  birds,  we  shall  find   a  wronderful  provision 
in  that  particular  class  to  ensure  lightness,  the  bones  being 
thin  cylindrical  tubes  filled  with  air. 

219.  In  the  corresponding  bones  of  quadrupeds,  the  interi- 
or is  filled  with   an  oily  substance        Figs.  61  and  62. 
called  marrow,  which  is  entire  and 

undivided  along  the  shaft,  or  small- 
est part  of  the  cylinder,  but  is  con- 
tained in  pores  toward  the  two  ex- 
tremities, w^here  there  is  a  spongy 
expansion  of  bony  matter,  for  the 
purpose  of  strengthening  the  enlarg- 
ed size  of  the  bone  at  these  pails. 
Fig.  61  represents  a  longitudinal 
section  of  the  femur,  or  human 
thigh  bone,  showing  the  dense,  solid 
substance  of  the  external  parts,  and 
the  cavernous  and  spongy  structure 
of  the  interior.  Fig.  62  shows  a" 
similar  section  of  the  humerus,  or 
bone  of  the  arm  which  joins  the 
shoulder.  It  is  said  by  mechanical 
philosophers,  who  have  made  ex- 
periments on  this  subject,  that  it 
would  have  been  impossible  to 
have  otherwise  formed  with  the 
same  quantity  of  solid  matter,  a 
lever  so  strong,  and  yet  so  light, 
as  that  presented  by  the  long 
bones  of  the  quadrupeds  and  man. 

What  is  said  of  the  construction  of  bones  which  are  used  as  levers  ' 
Give  a  description  of  the  structure  of  the  two  bones  shown  by  Figs.  61 
What  is  said  of  the  mechanical  strength  of  the  long  bones  ? 


FORMATION  OF  BONE.  79 


FORMATION  AND  GROWTH  OF  BONE. 

220.  IN  the  earlier  stages  of  animal  growth,  there  is 
formed  in  those  parts  of  the  system  which  are  ultimately  to 
be  supplied  with  bone,  a  cartilaginous  pattern  in  miniature 
of  the  bone  itself.  This  cartilage  is  semi-hard,  somewhat 
tenacious  and  translucent.  When  the  bone  begins  actually 
to  form,  the  cartilage  becomes  absorbed  at  the  centre  of 
the  piece,  and  a  few  ossific  particles  are  deposited  in  its 
place.  As  the  process  goes  on,  cartilage  continues  to  be 
taken  up,  and  bone  formed  in  its  room  from  the  centre 
toward  the  circumference,  or  extremities,  until  the  whole 
becomes  ossified. 

221.  In  the  cylindrical  bones  the  process  begins  in  the 
middle  of  the  cylinder,  forming  a  ring  there,  which  in- 
creases in  both  directions,  until  the  whole  becomes  bone. 
Several  of  the  bones  of  animals,  particularly  those  of  the 
scull,  are  not  completely  formed  until  the  animal  is  of  con- 
siderable age. 

222.  The  heads  of  the  bones  are  formed  independently 
of  the  shafts,  being  separate  pieces  with  a  thin  layer  of 
cartilage  between  them.     Afterward  these  parts  unite,  the 
cartilage   being   replaced    by    bone ;    but  this  does   not 
happen  in  our  species  until  the  age  of  fifteen  or  eighteen 
'years. 

223.  The  bones  are  well  supplied  with  blood-vessels, 
which  enter  about  the  middle  of  the  long  bones,  and  pene- 
trating the  central  cavity,  pass  both  upward  and  down- 
ward, supplying  the   substance  of  the   bone  with  small 
branches,  and  giving  off  some  very  delicate  arteries  which 
secrete  the  marrow.    It  is  the  arteries  which  thus  pass  into 
the  bones,  giving  off  the  most  delicate  fibres  through  every 
part  of  its  substance,  that  secrete  and  form  the  bone  itself. 

224.  Every  bone  is  surrounded  by  a  thin  membrane, 
called  the  periosteum*,  from  which  pass  into  the  external, 
and  most  solid  part  of  the  bone,  thousands  of  fine  blood- 
vessels by  which  this  part  was  formed,  and  is  still  nourished, 

In  what  manner  is  it  said  bones  are  formed  ?  Are  the  long  bones  of 
young  animals  formed  of  one,  or  several  pieces?  Are  the  solid  parts  ol 
bones  supplied  with  blood-vessels  or  not  ?  What  is  the  membrane  which 
surrounds  the  bones  called  ?  'What  vessels  deposite  or  secrete  bone7 


VERTEBRATE!)   ANIMALS. 


as  is  proved  by  the  fact,  that  the  destruction  of  the  peri- 
osteum, causes  the  death  and  decay  of  the  part  over  which 
it  was  placed. 


SPINE  OF    THE    VERTEBRATA. 


225.  The  word  spine  signifies  a  thorn  ;  this  part  of  the 
skeleton  being  so  called,  because  each  piece  of  which  the 
back  bone  is  formed,  has  a  projecting  process  outward, 
making  as  a  whole  that  prominent  ridge  so  well  known  as 
the  spine  in  various  animals.  Thus  by  common  consent, 
and  long  usage,  a  column  made  up  of  many  pieces,  is  not 
only  named  after  a  sharp-pointed  instrument,  but  is  spoken 
of  aS  a  single  bone. 

226.  This  column  in  the  human  species,  consists  of 
twenty-four  distinct  bones,  named  vertebra,  from  the  Latin 
vertere,  to  turn,  because  this  part  of  the  skeleton  has  motion 
in  every  direction. 

227.  Of  these  twenty-four  pieces,  five 

belong  to  the  loins,  twelve  to  the  back,  Fis-  63- 
and  seven  to  the  neck.  The  whole  spinal 
column  is  represented  by  Fig.  63,  of 
which  the  pieces  above  2,  and  below  1, 
belong  to  the  neck  and  loins ;  while  those 
between,  belong  to  the  back. 

228.  The  spine  is  the  foundation,  or 
chief  mechanical   support  of  the  whole 
skeleton ;  and  riot  only  so  as  giving  pro- 
tection to  the  spinal  cord,  wrhich  in  one 
sense  is  a  part  of  the  brain,  being  a  con- 
tinuation of  its  substance,  but  is  a  very 
essential  part  with  respect  to  the  nervous 
system. 

229.  A  single  vertebra  is  shown  by 
Fig.  64,  where  the  lower  part,  or  body, 
which  is  somewhat  radiated  on  the  surface, 
is  that  by  which  it  is  joined  to  its  fellow. 
The  elongation  s  is  called  the  spinous 
process;  and  is  that  which,when  the  whole 
are  in  place,  forms  the  ridge  of  the  spine, 
pr  back.    Beside  this, there  is  another  pro- 
jection, t,  on  each  side  of  the  base  of  the 


SPINE    OF    THE    VEKTEBRATA.  81 

arch  on  which  the  spinous  processes  are         FiS-  64- 
situated.     These    are    called   the    trans- 
verse processes   of    the   vertebrae.      The 
arch  formed  by  the  united  bases  of  these 
processes,  and  a   groove  in  the  body  of 
the    vertebra?,    form    the   canal   through 
which   the  spinal  marrow  passes.     This 
aperture   through    a    single   vertebra,   is 
obvious  in  the  adjoining  figure.     When 
all  are  united,  they  form  a  continuous  canal  with  solid 
walls,  for  the  protection  of  that  most  important  part  of 
the  animal  system  next  to  the  brain,  the  spinal  marrow. 

230.  The  spine  is  the  great  central  beam  of  the  whole 
fabric  of  the  skeleton.     To  this  part  all  the  other  bones 
are  connected  by  muscles  and  joints,  the  whole  being  thus 
combined  into  a  general  frame-work.     It  is  the  common 
axis  of  all  the  motions  of  the  limbs,  by  furnishing  fixed 
points  for  the  attachment  of  all  the  larger  muscles. 

231.  Nowhere   has   the  mechanical   art  of  the  Great 
Architect  of  Nature  been  more  skilfully  displayed  than  in 
the  construction  of  this  part   of  our   frames.     Had   the 
spine  been  made  of  a  single  rigid  piece,  it  would  be  lia- 
ble to  fracture  by  blows  which  it  now  withstands  with 
impunity;   and  besides,  such  a  construction  would  have 
deprived  us  of  a  great  variety  of  motions,    which    are 
now  so  important  to  us  in  the  business  and  comforts  of  life. 

232.  Between  the  bodies  of  each  bone  there  is  an  elas- 
tic cartilage,  allowing  of  a  little  motion  in  all  directions  ; 
and  this   slight   flexure   in  each   part,  being   multiplied 
through  the  whole  column,  admits  of  sufficient  motion  for 
all  our  purposes. 

233.  In  addition  to  the  cartilaginous  connection,  the  spi- 
nal bones  are  bound  together  by  strong  ligaments  and  mus- 

What  does  the  word  spine  mean  ?  Why  is  the  back  bone  called  spine  ? 
How  many  bones  does  the  spine  consist  of?  How  are  these  bones  divi- 
ded, and  what  names  are  given  to  each  division  ?  What  is  said  of  the 
mechanical  importance  of  the  spine  ?  What  very  important  part  does 
the  spine  protect  ?  Which  is  the  spinous,  and  which  the  transverse  pro. 
cesses  of  the  spine?  What  most  important  portion  of  the  system  is  pro 
tected  by  the  spine?  What  is  said  of  the  importance  of  the  spine,  as 
connected  with  the  other  parrs  of  the  bony  fabric  ?  What  would  have 
been  the  consequences,  had  the  spine  been  formed  of  a  single  :>'ece  ? 
How  are  the  several  pieces  of  the  spine  connected  together  ? 


o2  VEBTEBRATED  AMMALS. 

cles,  passing  from  one  process  to  the  other,  through  the 
whole  line,  thus  combining  the  twenty-four  pieces  into  one 
entire  and  firm  column. 

234.  It  is  by  the  action  of  these  muscles,  thus  passing 
longitudinally  along  the  spine,  that  we  are  enabled  to 
bend  it  backward  and  forward,  or  from  right  to  left.  Thus 
the  back  is  made  hollow,  or  bent  backward,  when  the 
muscles  attached  to  the  spinal  processes  are  contracted  j 
and  when  those  attached  to  the  transverse  processes  are 
contracted  on  the  one  side,  and  relaxed  on  the  other,  then 
the  column  is  bent  from  the  right  toward  the  left,  or  the 
contrary,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Fig.  65. 


235.    The  connection  of  the  spine  of  the  human  frame 
with  the  ribs  and  arms,  is  shown  by  Fig.  65.     The  ribs  are 

How  is  the  spinal   column  made  to  bend  backward,  or  from  right  to 
left? 


SPINE   OF   THE   VERTEBRATA. 

generally  twelve  in  number  on  each  side,  though  jn 
some  instances  they  are  found  to  be  thirteen,  and  more 
rarely  only  eleven.  They  are  distinguished  into  true 
and  false  ribs.  The  seven  upper  ones,  which  are  artic- 
ulated, or  joined  to  the  sternum,  c,  are  called  true  ribs, 
while  the  five  lower  ones,  which  are  not  immediately 
attached  to  the  sternum,  or  breast-bone,  but  to  a  cartilage 
connected  with  it,  are  called  the  false  ribs.  The  other 
extremities  of  the  ribs  are  articulated  by  small  heads  to 
the  vertebrae,  and  secured  by  a  ligament,  so  as  to  allow  of 
a  small  motion  upward  and  downward,  but  in  no  other 
direction. 

236.  The  use  of  the  ribs  is  to  give  form  to  the  thorax, 
to  cover  and  defend  the  lungs  and  heart,  which  are  situ- 
ated within  them  ;   and  also  to  assist  in  breathing,  by  their 
alternate  elevation  and  depression. 

237.  The  sternum,  c,  or  breast-bone,  it  is  well  known, 
h  situated  in  front  of  the  thorax.     In  young  people,  this 
bine  is  hi  several  parts,  united  by  cartilages  ;  but  as  we 
advance  in  life  these  cartilages  ossify,  or  are   changed 
into  bone.     Its  shape  is  oblong,  and  its  external  surface 
convex.     To  its  edges   are  immediately    articulated   the 
seven  upper  ribs. 

238.  The  clavicle,  b,  has  its  name  from  the  Latin  clavis, 
which  appears  to  come  from  clando,  to  shut,  this  bone 
resembling  in  shape  an  ancient  key.     It  is  usually  called 
the   collar  bone,  and  is  placed  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
breast,  or  root  of  the  neck,  extending   across  from  the 
tip  of  the  shoulder  to  the  upper  part  of  the  sternum.     It 
is  a  round  bone,  curved,   somewhat   into   the  shape   of 
the  italic  S.     It  supports,  and  maintains  the  shoulder  in 
its  proper  place,  and  prevents  it  from  falling   forward 
toward  the  breast.     Its  outer  end  is  firmly  fixed  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  scapula,  or  shoulder-blade.     Animals 
which  employ  their  fore  feet  as  hands  are  furnished  with 
this  bone,  as  the  monkey-tribe  and  squirrels  ;  while  those 

What  is  the  number  of  ribs  in  the  human  skeleton?  How  are  they 
listinguished  ?  To  what  part  are  the  seven  upper  ribs  articulated  in 
front  ?  How  are  the  anterior  ends  of  the  five  lower  ribs  secured?  How 
are  the  posterior  ends  of  all  the  ribs  secured  ?  What  are  the  uses  of  the 
ribs?  What  is  said  of  the  sternum?  Whence  is  the  name  clavicle? 
What  is  the  common  name  of  this  bone  ?  To  what  parts  is  the  clavicle 
articulated?  What  animals  beside  man  have  this  bone? 


$4  VEllTEbKATED    ANIMALS. 

which  make  no  such  use  of  their  feet,   are  without  it,  as 
the  horse  and  sheep. 

The  bones  of  the    arm  are  the  humerus,   d,  and  the 
radius,  and  ulna,  e  andy. 

239.  The  humerus  is  a  long  cylindrical  bone,  with  its 
upper  end  articulated  to  the  scapula,  forming  the  shoulder 
joint.  -  At  the  point  of  articulation,  the   extremity  is  en- 
larged into  a  round,  smooth  head,  which  is  admitted  into 
the  glenoid,  or  shallow  cavity  of  the  scapula,  where  it  is 
strongly  secured  by  ligaments,  but  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
allow  it  motion  in  all  directions. 

240.  At  its  lower  extremity,  the  humerus  is  gradually 
expanded,  for  the  articulation  of  the  two  bones  of  the  fore- 
arm,  the  radius  and  ulna,  both  of  which  are  connected 
with  this  bone   at  their  upper  extremities,  forming   the 
elbow  joint. 

241.  The  mechanism  of  the  elbow  joint,  as  well  as  the 
action  of  the  muscles  on  the  radius  and  ulna,  together  with 
the  mechanism  and  wonderful  powers  of  the  hand,  will  be 
reserved   for   another    place,   while   we    proceed   to    an 
.account  of  the  spines  of  other  vertebrated  animals 

The   whole   number   of  bones   in   the   human  species 
amount  to  240. 

242.  Unity  of  design  manifested  in  the  Constitution  of 
the  Spines  of  Vertebrated  Mnimals. — It  is  a  truth,  as  won- 
derful as  it  is  instructive,  which  the  study  of  nature  de- 
velops, that  although  the  Creator   had    almighty  power 
and  infinite  wisdom,   and  might,  therefore,  have    varied 
his  plans,  and  executed  his  designs,   in  an  infinite  number 
of  ways,    in    the    construction  of  the    different   races    of 
animals,  that  we  still  find  an  economy  of  design,  and  a 
unity  of  plan  in  the  general  construction   of  the  frame- 
work, or  foundations  of  the  grand  divisions  of  animals, 
which  prevails  throughout  all   the  orders,  or  sub-divisions, 
however  different  the  destinies,  or  habits  of  the  distinct 
races  may  be  from  each  other.     Reasoning  and  judging 
on  this  subject  as  we  do  with  respect  to  the  arts  of  man, 


What,  are  the  bones  of  the  arm   called  ?     What  joint  is  formed  bv  the 


S?1NE   OF    THE   VERTEBRATA. 


85 


we  should  be  led  to  suppose  that  the  frame-work  of  our 
own  species  had  first  been  constructed,  and  that  the  cor- 
responding parts  of  other  animals  had  been  varied  from 
this,  only  so  far  as  their  means  of  existence,  habits,  or  the 
element  in  which  they  were  destined  to  live,  made  it  abso- 
lutely necessary. 

243.  We  have  p1  :eady  stated  that  the  spine  is  the  main 
column,  or  IDT,!  substantial  part  of  the  skeleton  of  verte- 
brated   animals,  and  we  have  described  and  figured  this 
part  as  it  exists  in  our  own  frames.     We  will  now  show 
the  unity  of  design  which  exists  in  the  construction  of  the 
animal  kingdom,  by  comparing  the  spines  of  other  animals, 
with  that  belonging  to  the  human  frame. 

244.  Mechanical  elements  in  the  Vertebra. — The  num- 
ber of  elements,  or  mechanical  parts  which  enter  into  the 
composition  of  the  vertebrae  of  different  animals  is  shown 
by  Fig.  66.     This  does  not  represent  the  precise  form  of 
any  vertebra,  but  is  meant  to  com- 
bine the   elements  of  the  corres- 
ponding parts  as  existing  in  verte- 

brated  animals  generally.  The 
first  part  is  the  nucleus  or  body  of 
the  vertebrae  6,  which  is  present  in 
all  the  species.  Next  in  import- 
ance is  the  bony  plates,  or  leaves, 
as  they  are  called,  /,  /,  which  pro- 
ceed from  the  sides  of  the  body, 
and  embrace  the  spinal  marrow, 
which  runs  through  the  aperture 
between  them  as  shown  in  the 
figure.  Another  essential  element 
is  the  spinous  process,  s,  which 
unites  the  two  plates,  and  thus 
completes  the  superior  arch,  of 
which  it  may  be  considered  as  the  keystone  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  spinal  cord.  Then  come  the  two  transverse 
processes,  t,  t,  which  extend  outward,  toward  the  sides, 
and  with  which  the  ribs,  r,  r,  are  generally  connected. 


Fig.  66. 


Explain  Fig.  66.    Point  out  the  parts  that  are  essential  to  a  vertebra. 
8 


V 

•• 


VERTEBRATED   ANIMALS. 


These  are  the  six  parts  which  comparative  anatomists  con- 
sider the  elements  of  the  vertebrae,  and  which  are  found  in 
most  vertebrated  animals,  however  various  in  form,  size, 
or  habits,  they  may  be.  In  some  cases,  however,  in  addi- 
tion to  these,  there  is  the  process  f,  bifid  at  the  base,  and 
forming  a  spine  at  the  lower  surface  of  the  vertebrae, 
or  opposite  to  the  spinous  process.  This  structure  is 
common  in  the  fishes.  The  aperUr~  forced  by  the 
bifurcation  of  this  process,  admits  the  passage  of  a  large 
artery. 

245.  As  our  plan  will  not  allow  an  extension  of  this 
part  of  our  subject  to  the  different  orders  of  the  veile- 
brata,  we  will  omit  any  illustration  from  the  quadrupeds, 
as  being  most  nearly  allied  to  man  in  the  scale  of  organi- 
zation, and  therefore  most  likely  to  present  similar  spines  ; 
and    since    illustrations  the    ntost   remote   from    man  in 
the   scale    of    being,  will    tend   most    clearly   to  show  a 
unity  of  plan  in  the  construction  of  the  whole,  we  will  give 
examples  from  some  of  the  lower  orders  of  vertebrated 
animals. 

246.  Vertebra  of  Fish. — Fig.  67  represents  a  section 
of  a  part  of  the  spine  of  a  fish  Fj    67 
standing  in  the  natural  position. 

The  foody  of  each  vertebra  is 
hollowed  out  on  both  sides  so  as 
to  form  cup-like  cavities;  by 
which  means  when  the  two  con- 
vex cavities  are  applied  to  each 
other  as  in  the  living  animal, 
a  cavity  having  the  shape  of  a 
short  double  cone  is  formed,  as 
shown  in  the  figure.  These  cav- 
ities left  by  the  bones,  are  filled  with  a  gelatinous  substance 
which  is  nearly  incompressible,  and  which  appears  to 
serve  as  a  kind  of  pivot  for  the  motions  of  the  joint.  By 
dividing  a  spine  in  the  centre,  these  parts  are  seen  as 
shown  in  the  figure. 

247.  A  single  vertebra  is  represented  by  Fig.  68,  for  the 

Explain  Fig.  67.    What  is  the  difference  between  the  vertebrae  of  quad- 
rupeds and  fishes ? 


SPINE    OF   THE    VERTEBRATA. 


87 


purpose  of  showing  the  peculiarity  of  this 
part  in  the  fish,  and  which  forms  one  of  the 
elements  of  Fig.  66,  which  is  marked  f. 
In  the  vertebrae  of  the  fishes,  therefore,  we 
see  the  two  spinous  processes,  ff?  stand- 
ing opposite  to  each  other,  the  one  above  and 
the  other  below  the  body,  while  the  trans- 
verse processes  are  wanting.  These  are  the 
points  of  difference  between  the  spines  of  this 
class  of  animals,  and  those  of  the  land  verte- 
brata. 

248.  The  design  of  this  difference  will  immediately  be- 
come obvious,  if  we  stop  for  a  moment  to  inquire  what  sort 
of  motion  in  the  spine  is  best  calculated  to  impel  the  fish 
through  the  element  where  it  lives.     The  spines  of  the 
vertebra?  standing  in  a  vertical  position,  when  the  fish 
is  in  its  usual  posture,  all  vertical  motions,  or  flexures  of 
the   spinal   column   upward    and   downward,   is   entirely 
prevented,  the  motions   being    limited   to   flexures   from 
side  to  side.      Now,  since  the  fish   moves   through   the 
water  on  the  same  principle  that  a  boat  is  propelled  by 
what  is  called  sculling,  that  is,  by  a  single  oar  moved 
backward   and  forward  in  the  stern,  it  is  plain  that  any 
compound  flexure  of  the  spine  would  rather  retard  than 
facilitate  its  progress. 

249.  Locomotion     of   Fishes. — The 
manner  in  which  fishes  give  themselves 
progressive   motion   through   the    water 
will  be  understood  by  Fig.  69.     Suppose 
that  the  tail  is  curved  to  the  right,  as     / 
shown  in  the  figure,   and  in  this  situa-'2"' 
tion,  the  muscles  on   the  left   side    act 
suddenly,  so  as  to  bring  the  fish  into  a 
straight  line,  then  the   reaction   of  the 
water  against  the  motion  of  the  tail  in 

the  direction  of  r,  p,  would  give  the 
whole  body  an  impulse  contrary  to 
that  of  the  reaction,  and  the  centre  of 
gravity  c,  would  move  in  the  direction 
of  c,  6,  which  is  parallel  to  p,  r.  This 
impulse  is  not  destroyed  by  the  next 
flexure  of  the  tail  in  the  contrary 


88  VERTEBRATED    ANIMALS. 

direction,  because  the  principal  force  exerted  by  the 
muscles  has  already  been  exerted  in  the  motion  from  r 
to  m,  in  bringing  the  tail  in  a  straight  line  with  the  body ; 
and  the  force  winch  carries  it  on  to  /,  is  much  weaker, 
and  therefore  occasions  but  a  feeble  reaction  of  the 
water.  When  the  tail  has  come  to  /,  a  similar  action  of 
the  muscles  on  the  other  side,  will  give  an  impulse  in 
the  direction  of  /c,  /,  and  a  motion  of  the  whole  fish  in 
the  same  direction,  that  is,  in  the  line  c,  a.  The  flex- 
ures, and  consequent  re-action  of  the  tail  being  repeated 
in  quick  succession,  the  fish  moves  forward  in  the  diagonal 
of  c,  d,  intermediate  between  the  direction  of  the  two 
forces. 

250.  By  bending  the  whole  body  almost  to  a  circle  and 
then  suddenly  straightening  it,  fishes  are  able  to  leap  out 
of  the  water,  or  to  ascend  a  perpendicular  cataract  of  con- 
siderable height. 

251.  Did  the  plan  of  this  little  work  allow  an  extension 
of  the  subject  of  this  section,  it  could  be  shown  that  the 
spines  of  the  frog,  tortoise,  birds,   and   indeed   all  other 
vertebrated  animals,  present  a  striking  similarity  in  their 
structures,  and  that  their  forms,  lengths,  and  peculiarities, 
are  deviations  from  the  general  plan  we  have  described, 
only  so  far  as  is  necessary  to  adapt  them  to  the  general 
organization  of  the  animals  to  which  they  belong.     How- 
ever ignorant  any  one  may  be  of  anatomy,  he  will  gene- 
rally distinguish  the  back-bone  of  any   animal  without 
mistake,  so  great  is  the  similarity  in  all. 

STRUCTURE    OF   BIRDS. 

252.  In  np  class  of  animals  is  the  structure  of  the  seve- 
ral parts  so  obviously  adapted  to  the  uses  for  which  we  see 
them  employed,  as   in  the  birds.     In  these   animals,  the 
frame  of  the  skeleton,  the  figure,  position  and  construc- 
tion of  the  wings,  the  size  of  the  muscles ;  the  lightness 
of  the  whole  system  when  compared  with  the  size,  to- 

In  what  directions  does  the  spine  of  a  fish  allow  of  motion?  Would 
any  other  motion  assist  the  fish  in  its  progress?  Explain  Fig.  69,  and 
show  in  what  manner  the  fish  gains  progressive  motion  through  the 
water.  What  is  said  of  the  peculiar  adaptation  of  the  construction  of 
birds  to  the  element  in  which  they  move  ? 


STRUCTURE    OF    BIRDS.  89 

gether  with  the  positions  and  strength  of  the  quills,  and 
feathers,  all  have  a  direct  and  beautiful  relation  to  the 
properties  of  the  elements  in  which  they  are  intended  to 
move. 

253.  In  no  part  of  creation,  therefore,  do  we  see  more 
direct  and  positive  marks  of  design  in  the  Great  Author  of 
Nature,  in  the  adaptation  of  means  to  specific  ends,  than  in 
the  construction  of  birds. 

254.  What  is  particularly  striking  in  the  skeletons  of 
these  animals  when  compared  with  others,  is  the  vast  size 
of  the  sternum,  or  breast-bone  as  seen  atjf,  Fig.  70.     This 
bone  not  only   covers  the  whole  chest  to  a  considerable 
depth  on  each  side,  but  extends  back  nearly  to  the  in- 
sertion of  the  legs.     Its  lower  part  forms  a  deep  perpen- 
dicular crest,  shaped,  it  is  well  known,  like  the  keel  of  a 
ship,  the  whole  being  remarkably  thin  and  light,  when 
compared  with  the  extent  of  its  surface.     The  design  of 
this  great  development  is  obviously  to  furnish  an  exten- 
sive surface  for  the  attachment  of  the  pectoral  muscles 
to  be   employed  in  the  motions  of  the  wings.     In  many 
birds  these  muscles  outweigh   all  the  others  of  the  body 
put  together,  and  it  is  owing  to  their  great  power  that 
the  eagle  and  other  birds  have  such  amazing  strength  of 
wing,   as  to  carry  animals  heavier  than  themselves,  and 
that  the  swan  sometimes  breaks  a  man's  leg  by  a  single 
flap  of  his  pinion. 

255.  But  in  addition  to  the  general  appearance  of  light- 
ness, which  the  bones  of  birds  present,  the  cylindrical 
ones  are  hollow  tubes  filled   with  air.     In  this  they  differ 
from  all  other  living  bones,  those  of  other  animals  being 
filled  with  marrow. 

256.  The  lungs  of  birds  are  placed  on  the  ribs,  between 
which   their   substance   also   projects. — They    are    of    a 
compact  texture,    and   so   bound  down   to   their   places 
among  the  ribs,  as  to  have  no  expansive  and  contractile 
motion,  like  those   of  other    animals ;   hence   respiration 
in  this  order  is  carried  on  by  alternately  enlarging  and 
contracting  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  as  will  be  explained 


For  what  purpose  is  the  breast-bone  peculiarly  large  in  the  birds  ? 
With  what  substance  are  the  bones  of  birds  filled  f  In  what  manner  is 
respiration  carried  on  in  birds  ? 

7* 


90  VERTEBKATED   ANIMALS. 

in  another  place.  The  air  not  only  circulates  through 
the  lungs  by  this  means,  but  also  penetrates  the  cavities 
of  the  bones  through  vessels  constructed  for  this  purpose. 
In  birds  not  formed  for  extensive  flight,  this  provision, 
however,  is  much  less  extensive  than  in  others.  Thus 
in  the  domestic  ^>wl>  the  humerus,  or  first  bone  of  the 
wing,  is  the  only  one  filled  with  air.  But  in  the  eagle, 
and  other  tribes,  which  spend  much  of  their  lives  in  the 
air.  nearly  all  the  bones  are  hollow,  and  are  filled  with 
the  element  in  which  they  live.  The  air  thus  admitted 
becomes  considerably  rarefied  by  the  temperature  of  the 
bird,  by  which  provision  the  whole  body  is  rendered 
considerably  lighter  than  it  otherwise  would  have  been. 

257.  In   all  this  we  cannot  but  observe  a  wonderful 
adaptation  in  the  construction  of  the  animal,  to  its  habits, 
and  the  element  in  which  it  lives. 

258.  Structure  of  the  Back-Bones  of  Birds  and  Fishes. 
— In  the  structure  of  the  two  classes  of  vertebrata,  the 
birds  and  fishes,  we  may   trace   remarkable   differences 
which    are    obviously   dependant   on   the    adaptation    of 
each  to  the  elements  in  which  they  are  respectively  des- 
tined to  live.     In  the  fish,  the  chest   and   all  the  viscera 
are  placed   as   far  forward   as  possible ;   the   respiratoiy 
organs,  which  are  the  gills,  and  the  heart  being  also  close 
to  the  head.     Thus  the  bulk,   and  consequently  the   cen- 
tre of  gravity,  being  placed  near  the  head,  the  tail  is  left 
light  and  flexible  for  the  purpose  of  motion.     In  the  fish, 
the  neck,  or   rather  that  portion  usually  occupied  by  the 
neck  in  the  other  classes,  Disappears,  its  place  being  filled 
with  those  parts  usually  found  in  the  chests  of  other  ani- 
mals. 

259.  In  the  birds,  on  the  contrary,  the  viscera  are  pla- 
ced as  far  back  as  possible,   and  a  long  flexible  neck  is 
contained  between  the  trunk  and  head,  so  as  to  place  them 
at  a  considerable  distance   asunder.     In  fish,  progressive 
motion  is  effected  by  the  tail,  the  impulse  being  given  by 
its  horizontal  flexures  from  one  side  to.  the    other.     In 


What  difference  is  there  in  the  different  kinds  of  birds  with  respect  to 
the  quantity  of  air  contained  in  their  bones?  What  remarkable  differ- 
ence i-s  *here  between  the  construction  of  birds  and  that  of  fishes? 


STRUCTURE    OF    BIRDS.  9\ 

the  birds,  the  instruments  of  motion  are  fixed  to  the  fore- 
part of  the  trunk,  the  impulse  being  given  by  the  verti- 
cal, or  up-and-down  action  of  the  wings  at  the  same  in- 
stant. In  the  fish,  the  spine  is  flexible,  especially  tow- 
ard the  tail,  while  in  the  bird  this  part  is  rigid  through 
the  body,  having  motion  only  in  that  part  wrhich  forms 
the  neck. 

260.  Birds  change  the  Centre  of  Gravity. — It  is  by 
means  of  the  neck,  that  the  bird  is  enabled  to  change  its 
centre  of  gravity,  according  to  circumstances.  In  the  act 
of  flying,  this  centre  must  be  between  the  articulations  of 
the  wings  ;  while  in  resting  on  its  legs,  it  must  be  between 
the  feet.  Had  not  birds  the  power  of  adjusting  the  centre 
of  gravity,  they  could  neither  fly  with  precision  through 
the  air,  nor  rest  secure  on  their  feet. 

Fig.  70. 


261.  Skeleton  of  a  Swan.— The  skeleton  of  a  swan 
represented  by  Fig.  70,  will  not  only  serve  to  show  in 


92  VERTEBRATED    ANIMALS. 

what  manner  these  changes  with  respect  to  the  centre  of 
gravity  are  affected,  but  also  how  nearly  the  bones  of 
birds  correspond  with  our  own.  The  neck  of  this  bird  is 
composed  of  twenty-three  bones,  most  of  them  so  articu- 
lated together  as  to  allow  of  free  motion  in  all  directions. 
By  extending  this  part  in  a  straight  line,  the  bird  while 
flying,  moves  the  centre  of  gravity  so  as  to  bring  it  to 
some  point  between  the  insertions  of  the  wings,  whereas, 
while  the  swan  is  floating  on  the  water,  or  resting  on  the 
feet,  the  neck  is  thrown  backward  and  curved  into  the 
form  of  the  letter  S,  by  which  the  equilibrium  of  the  whole 
system  is  preserved  by  throwing  the  centre  of  gravity  be- 
tween the  feet.  On  the  same  principle  all  other  birds  are 
enabled  to  preserve  their  equilibria  in  any  position  they 
choose  to  take. 

262.  Comparison  between  the  Bones  of  Men  and  Birds. 
— We  have  already  shown  that  there  is  a  general  simili- 
tude in  the  skeletons  of  all  the  vertebrated  animals,  and 
especially  in  their  spines.  At  first  view  it  would  hardly 
be  thought  that  there  could  be  much  similarity  between 
the  bones  of  a  bird,  and  those  of  a  man,  and  yet  on  a  closer 
examination,  we  shall  find  that  the  general  principles  of 
structure  are  the  very  same,  and  not  only  so,  that  some  of 
the  individual  bones  approximate  each  other  in  form. 
Thus  the  humerus,  of  which  a,  Fig.  70,  is  the  head,  has 
a  general  form  like  4hat  of  our  own  species.  It  is  flat- 
tened in  the  same  manner  at  the  lower  extremity  for 
the  articulation  of  the  two  bones,  the  radius  and  ulna. 
The  two  latter  bones,  6,  with  which  the  humerus  forming 
the  elbow-joint,  are  also  the  same  in  number,  and  some- 
what similar  in  shape  to  those  forming  the  corresponding 
part  of  the  human  skeleton.  The  carpus,  or  wrist,  c,  con- 
sists of  only  two  bones,  the  one  articulated  with  the 
radius,  the  other  with  the  ulna.  These  move  together  as 
one  piece.  The  metacarpus,  or  hand,  d,  also  consists  of 
two  bones,  but  these  are  united  so  closely  as  to  form 
only  one  in  effect  and  use.  Below  these,  at  e,  there  is  a 
little  projecting  bone  which  may  be  considered  as  a  rudi- 
mental  thumb. 

263.  The  prehensile  organ  in  birds  being  the  bill,  and 


ANIMAL   FUNCTIONS.  93 

85  nature  never  furnishes  any  organs  but  such  as  are  abso- 
lutely necessary,  so  the  terminations  of  the  wings  of 
birds,  instead  of  being  furnished  with  bones  and  mus- 
cles which  have  the  prehensile  power,  like  the  hand,  are 
only  provided  with  such  as  are  fitted  for  the  insertion  of 
quills. 


PART  III. 


ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 


264.  THE  Vital  Functions,  or  actions  of  animals,  are 
such  as  are  immediately  essential  to  life,  as  the  circulation 
of  the  blood,  respiration,  secretion,  and  absorption.  With- 
out these  the  animal  cannot  exist.  The  Animal  Functions 
are  those  which  support  and  renovate  the  system,  and 
without  which  the  vital  functions  could  not  long  be 
maintained,  as  digestion,  nutrition,  and  the  formation  of 
chyle.  These  are  not  immediately  essential  to  life,  but 
may  be  suspended  for  a  time.  The  Mechanical  Func- 
tions are  such  as  depend  on  the  will,  as  the  action  of  the 
muscles,  whether  employed  for  the  purposes  of  swim- 
ming, flying,  or  walking.  The  instruments  by  which 
mechanical  action  is  effected  have  been  the  chief  sub- 
jects of  the  foregoing  pages,  and  we  shall  now  proceed 


What  are  the  vital  functions  of  animals  ?     What  are  the  animal  func- 
tions ?    What  are  the  mechanical  functions  ? 


94  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

to  treat  of  the  animal  functions,  reserving  for  future  con- 
sideration the  action  of  the  human  muscles,  which  can 
be  most  properly  noticed  when  we  come  to  speak  of 
physical  education. 

SOURCES    OF   NUTRITION. 

265.  The  nutrition  which  nature  has  provided  for  the 
various  tribes  of  animals,  is  derived,  entirely,  from   two 
sources,  namely,  from  the   animal  and  vegetable   king- 
doms.    But  as  the  carnivorous  tribes   derive   their  food 
from  those  which  are  herbivorous,  the  nourishment  of  all 
is  ultimately  derived  from  the  earth  itself. 

266.  Vegetable  Food. — The  economy  of  nature  is  no- 
where more  wonderfully  manifest  than  in  the  adaptation 
of  animals  to  the  consumption  of  every  kind  of  nutrition, 
there  being  hardly  any  organized  substance  which  does 
not  furnish  food  for  some  living   creat*  ire.     The   succu- 
lent parts  of  vegetables  are  not  only  the  chief  source  of 
nourishment  of  the  greater  proportion  of  the  larger  ani- 
mals, but    also  serve  the   same   purpose   to   myriads   of 
insects.     Many  tribes  of  birds,  likewise,  live  on  vegeta- 
bles, but  insects  become  the  food  of  the  larger  number, 
while  riot  a   few    are   strictly   carnivorous.      But   while 
these   substances    are   the    common    food    of    the    most 
numerous   races,  even   the   hardest  parts   of  vegetables, 
and  the   most  poisonous  plants  serve  the  same  purpose 
to    certain  other  tribes.     The   larvse   of  various   insects 
live  by  eating  their  way  through  the  diseased  portions  of 
timber  logs  ;  while  the  nettle,  the  deadly  night-shade,  the 
henbane,  and    other  acrid    and    poisonous    plants,    afford 
wTholesome  food  to  several  species.     Some  live  on  fruits 
and  seeds,  and  others  on  the  juices  which  they  pump  from 
succulent  plants. 

267.  Minimal  Food. — But  while  a  vast  number  of  tribes 
thus  subsist  on  the  fruits  of  the  ground,  these  in  their 
turn  "become  the  prey  of  at  least  as  great  a  number  of 


Whence    do  animals  derive  their  nutrition  ?    What  is  said  of  the  ex- 
tent to  which  vegetables  serve  as  the  food  of  animals? 


SOURCES   OF   NUTRITION.  95 

carnivorous  animals.  Every  part  and  portion  of  the  earth's 
surtace ;  every  tree,  every  building,  every  room  in  which 
we  live,  and  even  the  atmosphere  which  we  breathe,  con- 
tain a  greater  or  less  number  of  beings,  which  are  perpetu- 
ally on  the-  alert  to  procure  victims  for  their  voracious 
appetites.  From  the  spider,  which  "  taketh  hold  with  her 
hand,  and  liveth  in  king's  palaces,"  to  the  lion  which 
prowls  over  the  deserts  of  Africa,  there  is  an  uninterrupted 
series  of  carnivora,  ready  to  suck  the  blood  of  any  living 
thing  they  can  master, 

268.  We  can  see,  and  shudder  at  beholding  the  formi- 
dable arms  of  the  lion,  and  tiger,  and  can  observe  the 
murderous  disposition  of  the  cat.     But  there  are  thousands 
of  insects  which  lie   in  wait  for  their  prey,  and  which 
emulate  the  feline  race  in  their  savage  dispositions,  which 
fall   under    the    observation  of   none    except   naturalists. 
Many  of  these,  when  only  a  few  hours  old,  begin  to  hunt 
for  their  prey,  and  continue  during  their  lives,  to  subsist 
only  by  war  and  bloodshed.     Many  of  them  are  cannibals, 
devouring  their  own  kind,  or  even  their  own  families, 
without  hesitation,  when  other  food  does  not  come  in  the 
way.     Nor    are   many  of  the   inhabitants  of  the  water, 
whether  fresh  or  salt,  less  predacious  in  their  dispositions. 
From  the  larva,  that  is  cojitented  with  the  stagnant  pool 
by  the  roadside,  to  the  shark,  that  roams  through  the  wide 
ocean,  there  exists  a  continued  series  of  animals,  not  less 
rapacious  in  their  dispositions,  and  even  more  voracious 
ih  their  habits,  than  the  corresponding  series  which  inhabit 
the  land. 

269.  Many  of  the  carnivorous  tribes  insist  upon  killing 
their  own  food,  and  will  touch  nothing  which  they  find 
already  dead ;  while  others  are  too  indolent  to  live  by  the 
chase,  and  are  contented  to  devour  anything  that  once  had 
life,  in  whatever  state  they  may  find  it. 

270.  In  the  absence  of  the  larger  animals,  myriads  of 
insects  are  ever  ready,  in  the  warmer  seasons,  to  devour 
any  dead  animal,  no  matter  in  whatever  place  it  may  be 
found. 

271.  So  strongly  was  Linnaeus  impressed  with  the  im- 
mensity of  the  scale  on  which  the  work  of  demolition  was 

What  is  said  of  carnivorous  animals  and  their  food  ? 


96  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS 

carried  on  by  insects,  that  he  used  to  maintain  that  the 
carcass  of  a  horse  would  not  be  devoured  by  a  single 
lion,  as  soon  as  it  would  by  three  green  flesh  flies  (rtnisca 
vomitoria),  and  their  immediate  progeny  ;  for  it  is  known 
that  one  such  fly  will  lay  twenty  thousand  eggs,  which  in 
the  course  of  a  single  day  will  produce  larvae,  each  of 
which  will  devour  so  much  food,  as  in  another  day  to  in- 
crease its  weight  two  hundred  times ;  and  each  of  these 
twenty  thousand  in  the  course  of  a  few  days  more,  will 
produce  a  third  generation  equally  numerous. 

272.  Relation  between  the  Organization  of  Animals  and 
their  Food. — Thus  we  see  that  one  race  of  animals  is  des- 
tined to  become  the  food  of  others,  and  these  again  are 
in  their  turn  consigned  to  the  same  fate  from  their  more 
powerful   enemies.     Each   kind,  whether  they  subsist  on 
vegetables  or  flesh,  are  so  organized  as  to  digest  the  food 
which    their    appetites    crave.     The    peaceful    cow  and 
sheep   are   contented  with  cropping  the  blades  of  grass 
from  the  field,  because  their  organs  of  nutrition  are  fitted 
for  the  digestion  of  this  kind  of  food  and  no  other.     But 
the   lion,  the  tiger,  and  all  other  carnivorous  a  imals,  are 
organized  only  for  the   digestion   of   flesh,  and    can    no 
more  live  upon  herbs  than  the  cow  and  sheep  can  sub- 
sist upon  each  other.     Hence  the  Creator  has  provided 
these  animals  with  claws  to  secure  their  prey,  and  cutting 
teeth  to   tear  and  divide  it ;  and  since  this  is  the  only. 
mode  by  which  such   animals  can  live,  we  are  no  more 
at    liberty   to    treat   these    races   with    cruelty,  because 
they   tear    other    animals   in    pieces,  than    we  have   to 
maltreat  the  cow  because   she  crops  the  herbage  of  the 
field. 

273.  Man  omnivorous. — But  while  one  class  of  the 
animal  kingdom  are  herbivorous,  and  another  carnivorous, 
from  their  structure,  the  lord  of  the  creation  has  a  stom- 
ach, and  a  general  organization,  which,  so  far  as  food  is 
concerned,  embraces  both  these  classes ;  and  hence  man 


What  is  said  of  cruelty  toward  the  predacious  animals  ?    How  may 
animals  be  divided  with  respect  to  their  subsistence  ? 


ANIMAL    NUTRITION. 


97 


may  be  called,  as  he  strictly  is,  the  omnivorous,  or  all-eat' 
ing  animal. 

ANIMAL    NUTRITION. 

274.  When  we  examine  the  structure  of  the  very  low- 
est orders  of  animal  existences,  we  find,  that  whatever 
other  parts  may  be  wanting,  whether  they  be  eyes,  or 
ears,  or  nerves,  or  brain,  or  organs  of  locomotion,  two 
parts  are  always  present,  to  wit,  a  mouth  and  stomach. 
Without  these,  no  animal  can  exist,  for  however  com- 
plex the  organization  in  other  respects  may  be,  nothing 
can  compensate  for   the  organs  of  nutrition.     From  the 
account  we  have  given  of  the  structure  of  the  hydra, 
it  would  appear  that  nearly  every  other  part  usually  con- 
stituting an  animal  may  be  dispensed  with,  except  these ; 
and  that  some  of  the  polypi  consist  of  little  or  nothing 
more  than  a  throat  and  organs  of  digestion. 

275.  Some  animals  have  several  Stomachs. — Some  of 
the  polypi  tribes  have  at  least  four  stomachs,  and  the  aste- 
ria  or  star-fish,  a  very  common  inhabitant  of  our  sea- 
shores, has  ten  distinct  digestive  organs. 

Fig.  71. 


276.  The  mouth  of  this  animal,  a,  is  situated  in  a  de- 
pression at  the  centre  of  the  under  surface,  and  leads  into 
a  capacious  sack  or  bag,  placed  immediately  above  it, 
when  the  animal  lies  with  the  mouth  downward,  which 


What  is  said  of  the  necessity  of  a  mouth  and  stomach  to  each  animal? 
What  is  said  of  the  number  of  stomachs  possessed  by  some  animals  ? 

9 


98  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

is  tlie  natural  position.  From  this  central  sack,  there  pro- 
ceed ten  pi okmgatives,  or  canals,  which  occupy,  in  pairs, 
the  centre  of  each  ray,  or  division  of  the  body,  of  which 
there  are  five  to  each  star-fish.  These  prolongations,  or 
stomachs,  subdivide  into  numerous  ramifications  on  each 
side,  as  shown  by  Fig.  71,  c,  c,  which  represents  one  ray 
of  the  asteria,  laid  open  from  the  upper  side.  Each  ray 
has  two  stomachs,  such  as  are  here  shown,  making  ten  for 
every  animal. 

277.  Increased  Complexity  in  the  Stomach  of  the  high- 
er Orders. — We  shall  not  consider  it  necessary  to  describe 
the    apparatus    for  digestion    belonging   to    the   different 
grades  of  animals  as  they  ascend  in  the  scale  of  organ- 
ization.    It  will   be   sufficient  for  our  purpose  to  state, 
that  the    operations   preparatory  to    the    introduction    of 
food  into   the  stomach,  increase  in   some  proportion    to 
the  complexity  of  the   animal    organization.     Thus   the 
hydra   takes  its  food  into  the   stomach  in  precisely  the 
same  state  that  it  happens  to  come  to  the  mouth,  and  the 
fish,  snake,   frog,  and  many  other  tribes   swallow   their 
aliment  in  an  entire  state.     Neither  have  the  birds  any 
organs  for  mastication,  so   that  in   common    with  them, 
they    take   their  food    in    an    undivided   state.     But    the 
birds   are  furnished  with   an   apparatus  for  grinding  the 
materials   thus   swallowed,     before    they    are    introduced 
into   the   stomach,    thus    affording   an   example  of  com- 
plexity in  the  organs  of  nutrition,    proportionate  to    the 
general  scale  of  organic  development  which  these  ani- 
mals exhibit.     In  all  the  warm-blooded  quadrupeds,  the 
food   is   prepared    by    mastication    and    admixture   with 
saliva,   before  its  introduction  into  the  stomach.     With 
the  exception  of  man,  all  animals  take  their  food  in  the 
raw,  or  natural  state ;  but  with  him    great  preparations, 
and  often  very  pernicious  ones,  are  made  to  suit  the  ali- 
ment to  his  pampered  taste,  before  the  act  of  mastication 
commences. 

278.  Man  eats   nearly  every  digestible  thing. — Man 
being  an  all-eating  animal,  there  hardly  exists  an  article 
which  can  be  digested,  in  the  sea,  on  the  land,  or  in  the  air; 
lhat  he  has  not,  in  some  way  or  other,  contrived  to  render 


GRINDING   OF   FOOD.  99 

palatable,  or  at  least  to  convert  by  the  science  of  cookery, 
into  something  he  can  take  into  his  stomach. 

279.  The  most  active  ingredients  in  the  vegetable  and 
animal  kingdoms,  and  even  slow  poisons,  are  in  common 
use  as  condiments,  for  what  otherwise  would   be  whole- 
some food  ;  and  notwithstanding  man  is  the  most  anxious 
of  all  animals  to  procure  long  life,  and  is  perpetually  in- 
venting   new    and    improved     methods    to    prolong    his 
earthly  existence,  yet  in  practice  no  animal  shows  so  little 
wisdom  on  that  very  point  for  which  he  is  so  anxious,  as 
the  lord  of  creation.     All  the  inferior  animals  are  taught 
either  by  instinct  or  experience  to  avoid  deleterious  ali- 
ment, and  to  select  such  food  as  is  most  congenial  and 
wholesome ;  and  in  the  wild  state,  most  animals  would 
starve  rather  than  touch  the  food  which  man  prepares  for 
himself.     Indeed,  no  being  which  the  Creator  has  brought 
into  existence,  except  the  dog  and  the  swine,  could  long 
exist  on  the  scientific  compounds  which  man  has  invented 
to  gratify  the  artificial  cravings  of  his  omnivorous  appe- 
tite.    These  animals  having  been,  from  time  immemorial, 
subjected  to  human  power,  the  one  his  companion,  and 
the  other  the  object  of  his  cravings,  have  finally,  like  their 
masters,  acquired  indiscriminate  appetites.     But  notwith- 
standing the  pernicious  effects  of  luxurious  indulgence,  it 
will  be  shown  in  another  place,  that  man  requires  a  va- 
riety of  nutriment. 

GRINDING    OF    FOOD. 

280.  Animals  which  are  furnished  with  jaws  and  teeth, 
prepare  their  food  for  the  stomach  by  mastication.     But 
there  are  several  tribes  which  are  not  provided  with  such 
an  apparatus,  and  which,  as  they  take  solid  food,  require 
some   internal  means  of  breaking  it  in  pieces,  before  it 
enters  the  stomach.     All  the  birds  which  live  on  seeds,  as 
well  as  the  lobster  and  crab,  are  provided  with  an  appara- 
tus for  this  purpose. 

281.  The  part  which  performs  this  office  in  the  birds,  is 
well    known  under  the  name  of  gizzard.     That  which 
performs  the  same  functions  in  the  lobster,  is  very  differ- 
ent in  its  construction,  though  equally  efficacious  in  its 
operations. 


100 


ANIMAL   FUNCTIONS. 


282.  Grinding  Apparatus  of  the  Lobster. — This  part  in 
the  lobster  is  represented  Fig  72 

by  Fig.  72,  which  shows 
the  inside  of  the  stomach, 
together  with  the  tritura-  - 
ting  machinery  at  its  en- 
trance. There  is  a  carti- 
laginous frame-work,  in 
which  the  hard  calcareous 
bodies  marked  a,  6,  and  c, 
are  implanted.  These  have 
the  form,  and  perform  the 
office  of  teeth.  The  tooth,  a,  is  situated  in  the  middle  of 
this  frame  ;  it  has  a  conical  rounded  shape,  and  is  small- 
er than  the  others,  b  and  c,  are  of  the  same  size  and 
shape. 

283.  When  these  three  teeth  are  brought  together  by 
the  action  of  the  surrounding  muscles,  they  exactly  fit  into 
each  other,  and  are  capable  by  the  motion  which  is  given 
them,  of  completely  pulverizing  the  small  shells  of  mollus- 
ca,  which   have   been   introduced   into  the  cavity  of  the 
stomach  as  food. 

284.  Grinding  Apparatus  of  Birds. — But  the  internal 
machinery  for   grinding   is  larger,  and   more  completely 
formed  in  the  granivorous,  or  grain-eating  birds,  than  in 
any  other  animal.     In  carnivorous  birds,  as  the  owl  and 
eagle,  this  part  is  entirely  wanting ;  but  is  found  in  all  the 
tribes  which  live  on  the  seeds  of  vegetables,  as  the  hen, 
goose,  pigeon,  swan,  &c.     In  proper  with  the  ancient  no- 
tion, that  "  every  part  helps  a  part,"  the  grinding  faces  of 
the  gizzard  are  dried,  ground,  and  taken  to  help  digestion 
to  this  day. 

285.  This  organ,  called  the  gizzard,  has,  in  its  structure 
and  mode  of  action,  some  analogy  to  the  corn-mill.     It 
consists  of  two  powerful  muscles  of  a  hemispherical  shape, 
with  their  flat  sides  applied  to  each  other,  and  their  edges 
united  by  a  strong  tendon  which  leaves  an  oval,  vacant 


Describe  the  triturating  machine  in  the  stomach  of  the  lobster.     Wha 
tribes  of  birds  are  furnished  with  gizzards  ? 


GRINDING    OF    FOOD. 

space    between    their    surfaces 
This    mechanism    is    shown    by  ,  fHHf 

Fig.  73,  which  represents  the 
gizzard  of  a  swan  laid  open  so 
as  to  display  the  two  grinding 
faces  g.  These  surfaces  are 
covered  with  a  dense  horny 
substance,  which,  when  brought 
together,  and  made  to  move 
backward  and  forward,  are 
capable  of  crushing  the  hardest! 
seeds,  and  of  reducing  them  to' 
powder.  To  assist  in  this  oper- 
ation, many  birds  swallow  small 
stones,  whicli  mixing  with  the 
grain  facilitate  the  process. 

286.  In  most  birds  with  gizzards,  there  is  a  part  called 
the  crop,  represented  and  laid  open  and  empty  at  c,  in 
which  the  food  is  collected  and  softened  by  heat  and  moist- 
ure before  it  enters  the  gizzard.     This  part,  therefore,  acts 
as  the  hopper  to  the  mill,  and  from  it  only  a  few  grains  are 
admitted  at  a  time,  as  they  are  ground,  and  pass  on  to  the 
digestive  organ  or  proper  stomach. 

287.  The  gizzards  of  birds  have  been  the  subject  of  nu- 
merous and  elaborate  experiments,  by  various  physiolo- 
gists.    Those    of  Spallanzani  were  the   best  conducted, 
and    are  the   most   celebrated.     He  introduced  balls  of 
glass  into  the  gizzard  of  a  turkey,  and  found  that  they 
were  ground  to  powder.     Tin  tubes  were  also  flattened 
and  bent  into  various  shapes  by  the  powerful  action  of 
its  muscles ;  and  even  the  points  of  needles  and  lancets, 
set  in  balls  of  lead,  were  worn,  or  broken  off,  while  the 
grinding  part  itself  appears  to  have  suffered  not  the  least 
injury. 

288.  These  results  at  the  time  they  were  made  and 
published,  struck  all  philosophers  with  wonder  and  amaze- 
ment, and  calculations  were  soberly  made  in  order  to  esti- 
mate  the  actual  power  required  in  the  muscles  of  the 
gizzard  to  perform  such  feats. 

289.  But  the  celebrated  John  Hunter  having  instituted 
further  inquiries,  found  that  the  pressure  of  the  two  faces, 

4 


102  ANIMAL   FUNCTIONS. 

instead  of  being  perpendicular,  as  was  supposed,  is  lateral, 
and  at  the  same  time  somewhat  circular,  so  that  th«. 
power  it  exerts,  though  immensely  great,  is  directed  nearly 
in  the  plane  of  the  grinding  surfaces,  and  thus  that  the 
sharp  edges  and  points  were  bent  or  broken  by  a  grinding 
motion  and  not  by  direct  force. 

290.  But  this  does  not  account  for  some  of  the  results 
observed  in  the  appearance  of  the  sharp  points,  which 
were  worn  off,  as  if  rubbed  on  a  stone.     This  effect  was 
at  first  attributed  to  the  acrid  c  r  solvent  juices  of  the  organ ; 
but,  as  was  afterward  proved,  is  really  the  effect  of  the 
pebbles  which  are  always  found  in  the  gizzards  of  birds, 
when  they  can  be  obtained.     No  doubt  now  exists  among 
naturalists,  but  that  these  pebbles  are  absolutely  necessary 
to  the  perfect  digestion  of  the  food,  the  action  of  the  giz- 
zard alone  being  insufficient  to  reduce  its  contents  to  the 
proper  state  for  that  process. 

291.  After  the  food  has  been  prepared  by  the  gizzard, 
it  passes  on  to  the  stomach,  where,  by  a  process  to  be  here- 
after described,  digestion  and  assimilation  are  performed. 

ORGANS    OF    NUTRITION    AND  VITALITY    IN    THE    MAMMALIA. 

292.  The  mammalia  include  the  highest  orders  of  or- 
ganic development  in  the  animal  kingdom,  embracing,  as  the 
term  signifies,  all  such  animals  as  nurse  their  young,  as  the 
human  species,  the  quadrupeds,  quadrumanna  or  monkey, 
and  whale. 

293.  The  animals  are  provided  w^ith  a  complication  of 
organs,  all  of  which  are  more  or  less  subservient  to  the 
process  of  digestion,  for  without  this  process  none  of  the 
other  functions  could  long  be  sustained.     The  heart  and 
arteries  wrould  in  a  short  time  cease  to  act,  unless  they 
were  supplied  with  blood,  and  the  blood   being  formed 
of  chyle,   would    cease   to    be   produced,   if  the  process 
of  digestion,  by   which    the  chyle  is  elaborated,  should 
be    suspended    or    destroyed.      With    the    cessation    of 
arterial   action,   the   functions   of  the   brain    and   nerves 
would   fail,  and   thus   life   itself  would  become  extinct. 

What  a..,mals  does  the  class  mammalia  include?  What  other  functions 
depend  on  that  of  digestion?  If  the  action  of  the  heart  and  brain  should 
cease,  how  would  digestion  be  effected  ?  What  is  said  of  the  dependance 
of  these  functions  on  each  other? 


ORGANS    OF    THE    MAMMALIA. 


103 


And  so  in  its  turn,  the  process  of  digestion  would  cease 
with  the  want  of  action  in  the  heart  and  brain,  so  that  all 
these  functions  are  performed,  as  it  were,  in  a  circle,  each 
one  being  dependant  on  the  other.  In  one  view,  each  of 
these  functions  may  be  considered  as  subservient  to  the 
other,  while  in  another  view,  each  is  seen  to  be  entirely 
dependant  on  the  other. 

294.  Plan  of  the  most  important  Viscera. — A  connect- 
ed view  of  the  most  important  visceral,  and  vital  organs, 
are  represented  by  Fig,  74.  This  is  a  side  view,  showing 

Fig.  74. 


the  natural  situation  of  the  parts,  as  they  are  placed  in 
quadrupeds,  but  may  be  considered  as  applying  to  the  hu- 
man species  without  any  material  change. 

295.  In  the  explanation  of  this  view  we  will  begin  with 
the  passage  of  the  food  to  the  stomach.  The  esophagus,  o, 
is  a  muscular  tube  leading  from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach, 
and  through  which  the  food  passes  to  the  latter  organ.  Of 
the  stomach,  s  c,  is  the  part  nearest  the  heart,  and  is  called 
the  cardia,  or  cardiac  portion,  while  the  opposite  part  is 
termed  pylorus.  This  leads  to  the  intestinal  tube  marked 
i,  i.  The  mesentery,  in,  connects  the  latter  part  with  the 
back  ;  the  use  of  which  will  be  explained  directly.  The 
enlargement,  r,  is  the  receptacle  of  the  chyle ,  and  from 


104  ANIMAf.    FUNCTIONS. 

which  tnere  proceeds  a  tube  called  the  thoracic  duct, 
which  conveys  the  chyle  to  the  circulation ;  /,  is  a  portion 
of  the  liver.  That  portion  of  the  heart,  h,  which  is 
marked  u,  is  called  the  auricle,  while  the  cavity,  h,  is 
called  the  ventricle,  a  is  the  aorta,  which  is  the  trunk  of 
the  largest  artery,  and  v,  v,  v,  are  the  large  veins  which 
convey  the  blood  to  the  heart.  The  part  b,  is  a  portion  of 
the  lungs. 

296.  Having  pointed  out  the  different  parts,  we  will 
next  explain  in  few  words,  the  different  processes  by  which 
food  is  changed  iilto  blood,  and  also  the   course  of  the 
blood  in  its  circulation. 

297.  The  food  being  masticated  and  mixed  with  the 
fluid  secretions   of  the    mouth,  is  then  collected  into   a 
mass  by  the  muscles  of  the  cheeks  and  tongue,  and  swal- 
lowed, being  carried  along  the  tube  o,  by  its  contractions, 
down  to  the  stomach  s.     There  it  is  mixed  with  a  fluid 
secretion  of  the  stomach,  called  the  gastric  juice,  and  by 
which  it  is  dissolved  and  prepared  to  afford  -chyle  after  it 
has  been  conducted  through  the  pylorus.     After  having 
passed  the  pylorus  p,  the  food  is  mixed  with  the  bile,  a 
bitter  secretion  from  the  liver,  and   also  with  a  fluid  from 
the  pancreas,  when  a  portion  is  elaborated  into  chyle,  and 
is  ready  for  absorption  into  ihe-lacteals,  which  are  the  ves- 
sels spread  over  the  mesentery,  like  a  net-work,  as  shown 
by  the  figure. 

298.  The  chyle  being  taken  up  by  the  lacteals,  the 
mouths  of  which  are  thickly  spread  over  the  interior  of  the 
intestinal  tube,  is  carried  by  many  branches  to  the  recep- 
tacle of  the  chyje,  r,  from  which  it  is  conveyed  by  the 
thoracic .  duct,  t,  to  one  of  the  large  veins  under  the  arm, 
called  the  subclavian  vein,  and  by  this  vein  to  the  heart. 
It  thus   gains  admittance  to  the  general  circulation  of  the 
blood,  and  by  a  process  which  we  cannot  explain  becomes 
blood  itself. 

299.  It  is  by  means  of  a  constant  reception  of  chyle 
into  the  circulation,  that  the  quantity  of  blood  continues 
undiminished ;  and  that  the  arteries  are  enabled  to  furnish 


Explain  Fig.  74,  and  point  out  the  name  and  situation  of  each  part,  as 
designated  by  the  letters.  In  what  part  of  the  system  is  the  chyle  thrown 
into  the  circulation  ? 


ORGANS   OF    THE    MAMMALIA.  105 

glands  in  all  parts  of  the  system,  with  the  "purple  fluid 
from  which  all  the  various  secretions  are  produced.  By 
these  processes,  vegetable  as  well  as  animal  matter,  is 
converted  into  flesh. 

300.  It  is  through  the  routine  we  have  described,  from 
the  mouth  to  the  subclavian  vein,  that  the  system  is  reno- 
vated, and  the  exhaustion  consequent  upon  the  exercise  of 
all  its  numerous  functions,  is  constantly  repaired,  and  the 
whole  system  kept  in  vigor  and  health.     Not  a  particle 
of  nourishment  can  be  added  to  the  circulation  until  the 
food  has  been  changed  into  chyle ;  nor  is  there  any  other 
organ  by  which  the  chyle  can  be  conveyed  to  the  blood, 
except   the   thoracic    duct ;    hence    our   lives   constantly 
depend  on  a  little  stream  of  chyle,  about  the  size  of  a 
crow-quill,  which  enters  a  vein  under  the  arm-pit.     With- 
out this  source   of  renovation,  the   mass  of  blood  would 
soon    become    deficient  in   quantity    and   quality ;    there 
would  be  no  remedy  for  exhaustion,  no  source  of  muscu- 
lar power,  and  we  should  soon  fall  away  and  die  of  inan- 
ition, without  the  hope  of  a  remedy. 

301.  Circulation  of  the  Blood. —  The  blood  is  brought 
from  all  parts  of  the  system  by  the  veins,  which  are  con- 
stantly enlarging  by  communications  with  each  other,  as 
they   approach   the   heart.     The  veins  v,  v,  Fig.  74,  are 
called  the  ascending  and  descending  vence  cavce.     These 
convey   the   blood   to    the   right  auricle  of  the  heart,  u. 
When  the  auricle  is  full,  it  contracts,  and  sends  the  blood 
to  the  right  ventricle  h.     From  the   right  ventricle,  it  is 
thrown  by  the   strong  contraction   of  the   heart,   to  the 
lungs,  where   it  is  exposed  to  the   influence  of  the  atmo- 
sphere.    It  is  then  brought  to  the  left  auricle  of  the  heart, 
which  contracting,  throws  it  into  the  left   ventricle,  the 
action  of  which  forces  it  through  the  aorta,  to  all  parts 
of  the  system,  to  be  returned  again  to  the  right  auricle 
by  the  veins,  as  before. 

302.  This,  however,  is  only  a  general  account   of  the 
circulation  ;  a  more  particular  one  being  reserved,  until 
we  come  to  treat  of  the  circulation  in  different  orders  of 
animals. 

What  is  said  of  the  importance  of  the  chyle  to  the  living  system? 


106  ANIMAI,   FUNCTIONS. 

MASTICATION. 

303.  This  word  comes  from  the  Latin  mastico,  which 
signifies  to  chew.     Chewing  is  one  of  the  natural  functions 
of  animals,  the  object  of  which  is  to  divide  the  food  into 
minute  pieces,  and  thus  to  prepare  it  for  passing  through 
the  esophagus  into  the  stomach,  to  undergo  the  process  of 
digestion. 

304.  While  the  food  is  masticating,  it  is  at  the  same 
time  intermixing  with  a  fluid  called  saliva,  which  is  pre- 
pared by  glands  situated  around  the  mouth,  and  into  the 
cavity  of  which  it  is  poured  through  small  ducts,  coming 
from  the  glands  by  which  it  is  secreted.     The  action  of 
the   muscles  concerned  in  mastication,  serve  to   stimulate 
these  glands;    in   consequence   of  which   they    afford    a 
larger  quantity  of  the    fluid  at  the  time  when  it  is  most 
necessary.     The  same  action  also  facilitates  the  passage 
of  the  saliva  into  the  mouth. 

305.  If  the  mouth  had  been  constructed  without  this 
provision  for  moistening  the  food,  it  is  obvious  that  dry, 
absorbent   substances  could   not   have  been   swallowed ; 
since  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  as  our  experience  teaches, 
to  reduce  such  substances  to  a  soft  pulpy  mass,  before  they 
can  be  forced  through  the  esophagus. 

306.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  form,  structure, 
position,  and  number  of  the  teeth  of  different  animals  ;  all 
of  which  bear  a  direct  and  intimate  relation  to  the   kind 
of  food  on  which  they  subsist.     Thus  the  teeth  of  the  lion, 
the  wolf,  and  the  cat,  are  constructed  for  tearing  the  flesh 
of  animals  ;  while  those  of  the  cow,  sheep,  and  deer,  are 
made  to  crop  the  tender  herbs. 

307.  The  teeth  of  the  lion  could  no  better  perform  the 
office  assigned  to  those  of  the  cow,  than  the  cow  could 
rend  the  skin,  and  divide  the  muscles  of  a  living  victim,  in 
the  manner  of  the  lion. 

308.  Teeth  of  Man. —  In  the  human  subject  the  number 


What  is  meant  by  mastication  ?  Is  chewing,  a  vital,  or  a  natural  func- 
tion? What  is  the  use  of  mastication?  How  is  the  food  moistened  dur- 
ing mastication?  What  is  said  of  the  form  of  the  teeth,  in  relation  to  the 
kind  of  food  on  which  the  animal  lives  ? 


MASTICATION. 


107 


of  teeth  is  thirty-two,  the  shapes  and  names  of  which  it 
is  proper  here  to  present  to  the  student. 

Fig.  75. 

<iab  c          c          d          d  d 


309.  The  upper  row,  Fig,  75,  represents  the  upper  teeth 
on  the  left  side  j  the  lower  one,  the  under  teeth  on  the 
same  side.     Those  situated  in  front  of  the  ja\v,  the  bodies 
of  which  are  wedge-shaped,  are  called  the  incisores,  or 
cutting  teeth,  a  a.     At  the  sides  of  the  cutting  teeth,  and 
posterior  to  them,  stand  the  cuspidati,  or  canine  teeth,  b. 
The  bodies  of  these  are  also  somewhat  wedge-shaped, 
and  are  usually  called  the  eye-teeth.      Next  behind  the 
canine,  come  the  bicuspidati,  or  the  first  two  grinders,  c  c. 
The  bodies  of  these  are  oval,  with  the  surfaces  often 
slightly  indented.     Behind  these  stand  the  molares,  d  d  d, 
forming  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  grinders.    In  the  upper 
jaw,  the  last  three  grinders  generally  have  each  three 
fangs,  while  the   corresponding  ones  of  the  under  jaw 
have  only  two. 

310.  The  use  of  the  incisores  is  for  cutting  and  dividing 


What  number  of  teeth  has  the  human  species  ?    What  ate  their  names< 
and  how  are  they  situated  with  respect  to  each  other  ' 


108  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

the  food  in  the  manner  of  a  wedge,  and  thus  reducing  it 
into  pieces  of  a  convenient  size  to  be  easily  managed  by 
the  muscles  of  the  mouth.  The  canine  are  the  longest 
of  all  the  teeth,  deriving  their  name  from  their  resem- 
blance to  a  dog's  tusk.  There  are  two  of  these  in  each 
jaw,  and  not  being  calculated  for  dividing,  they  appear 
to  be  designed  for  laying  hold  of  substances.  Of  the 
molares,  or  grinders,  there  are  ten  in  each  jaw,  the  use  of 
which  is  to  finish  the  process  of  mastication,  by  reducing 
the  food  into  a  proper  state  of  division  to  be  swallowed. 
The  crowns  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  grinders  have  com- 
monly five  points,  or  protuberances,  two  of  which  are  on 
the  inner  and  three  on  the  outer  part. 

311.  In  comparing  the  organs  of  mastication  belonging 
to  the  human  species  with  the  corresponding  organs  of 
other  animals,  we  shall  observe  many  striking  differences. 
The  general  difference  between  the  teeth  of  the  carnivo- 
rous and  herbivorous  tribes,,  has  already  been  pointed  out, 
but  we  shall  here  illustrate  this  subject  by  means  of 
drawings,  that  the  studgnt  may  observe  for  himself  the 
distinctions  which  nature  has  impressed  on  several  differ- 
ent races  in  this  respect. 

312.  Teeth  of  the  Tiger. — As  an  example  of  the  mas- 
ticating apparatus  with  which  the  feline  race  is  furnished, 
the  head  of  the  tiger.  Fig.  76,  is  represented.     All  parts, 

Fig.  76. 


of  this  apparatus  are  evidently  formed  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  life,  and  for  tearing  and  dividing  the  fleshy  fibres. 

What  are  the  uses  of  the  canine  teeth?  What  office  do  the  molar  teeth 
perform '! 


MASTICATION.  109 

The  canine  teeth  are  of  enormous  size  and  strength, 
tapering  gradually  to  a  sharp  point,  and  turned  inward 
for  the  purpose  of  holding  whatever  they  grasp,  like  a 
pair  of  hooks. 

313.  They  also  pass  each  other  in  such  a  manner,  as 
when  once  fixed,  to  render  it  impossible  for  the  victim  to 
escape  without  leaving  the  included  part  within  the  jaws  of 
the  animal.  . 

314.  The  molar  teeth,  instead   of  being  rounded  and 
blunt  on  the  crown  for  grinding,  are  armed  with  pointed 
projections  which  correspond  in  the  opposite  jaws,  so  as 
exactly  to  lock  into  each  other  like  the  teeth  of  a  steel 
trap,  when  the  mouth  is  closed.     All  the  muscles  which 
close  the  jaws  are  of  enormous  size  and  power,  so  that 
their  action  imprints  the  bones  of  the  scull  and  jaws  with 
deep   impressions.     The  coridyle,  or  articulating  surface 
of  the  jaw,  c,  is  received  into  a  deep  cavity,  constituting 
strictly  a  hinge-joint,  which  has  no  grinding  motion,  but 
is  confined  to  that  of  opening  and  shutting,  like  a  pair  of 
huge  forceps.  r 

315.  Teeth  of  the  Antelope. — As  an  example  of  the 
herbivorous  animals,  the  scull  of  an  antelope  is  represented 
by  Fig.  77.     In  this  animal,  the  lower  jaw  is  furnished 

Fig.  77- 


with  eight  cutting  teeth,  the  upper  having  none.  There  is 
no  canine  teeth  in  either  jaw.  .  The  grinders  have  ex- 
tended flat  surfaces,  fit  only  to  reduce  tender  substances 
to  a  pulpy  mass.  The  temporal  muscle  attached  at  t, 

Describe  the  most  remarkable  parts  of  the  masticating  apparatus  in  the 
tiger. 

10 


1JO  AN1MAI     FUNCTION5?. 

and  spreading  on  the  lower  jaw,  and  by  which  the  latter 
is  chiefly  moved,  is  small  and  feeble  when  compared  with 
the  corresponding  part  in  the  feline  race.  The  articulation 
of  the  lower  jaw,  instead  of  being  such  as  to  allow  only  of 
a  hinge-like  action,  is  so  connected  as  to  play  laterally 
with  a  grinding  motion. 

316.  Such  are  the  differences  which  the  Creator  Jhas 
made  between  the  masticating  organs  of  the  flesh-eating 
and  the  grain-eating  races  of  quadrupeds. 

317.  Teeth   of  the    Gnaviers. — There  is  still  another 
family  of  mammalia,  which   are  remarkably  well  distin- 
guished  by    their   teeth,   and    which    remove  them    very 
decidedly  from  either  of  the  above  classes.     These  are  the 
rodentia  or  gnawing  quadrupeds,  as  the  squirrel,  rat,  bea- 
ver, and  rabbit. 

318.  These  animals  appear  to  be  formed  for  gnawing 
the  hardest  of  vegetable  bodies,  as  the  shells  of  nuts,  or  for 
living  on  dry  tough  materials,  as  the  bark  of  trees, .and 
even  on  the  woody  fibres.     They  are  generally  of  diminu- 
tive size,  and  reside  mostly  either  in  hollow  tree's,  or  in 
burrows  which  they    dig  for  themselves. 

319.  As  an  example  of  the  chewing  mechanism  of  this 
family,  the  scull  and  teeth  of  the  rat  are  presented  by 
Fig.    78.      The   cutting    teeth  Fig.  78. 

are  two  in  number  in  each 
jaw.  They  project  forward 
so  as  merely  to  admit  of  be- 
ing covered  by  the  lips,  and' 
are  exceedingly  sharp,  having 
at  the  edge  the  exact  shape  of 
a  chisel.  The  roots  are  large, 
curved,  and  set  in  solid  bone, 
so  that  in  the  dry  scull  they  cannot  be  extracted  without 
breaking  the  jaws.  The  grinding  teeth  are  marked  with 
raised,  angular  lines,  by  which  they  are  rendered  veiy 
perfect  instruments  for  the  trituration  of  hard  substances. 

320.  Masticating  Organs  in  Man,  compared  u-ith  those 
of  the  Mammalia. — In  comparing  our  own  organs  of  masti- 

What  is  the  difference  between  the  teeth  and  jaws  of  carnivorous  and 
herbivorous  animals?  What  peculiarities  do  the  teeth  of  the  gnawers 
preset*. 


MASTICATION.  Ill 

cation  with  those  of  other  animals,  we  may  remark  in  the 
first  place,  that  man  has  neither  the  canine  instruments 
of  the  carnivora,  nor  the  cropping  incisores  of  the  herbiv- 
orous tribes.  Neither  are  his  grinders  pointed  like  the 
first,  or  smooth  and  extended  on  the  surface  like  the  last. 
But  notwithstanding  the  want  of  those  prominent  and 
decisive  features,  by  which  the  teeth  point  out  in  so  re- 
markable a  manner,  the  kind  of  subsistence  to  which  each 
class  of  other  animals  is  confined,  still  this  very  want  of 
coincidence  is  a  decided  characteristic  of  the  habits  and 
propensities  of  man  with  respect  to  his  food. 

321.  Having  neither  the  instruments  which  are  best 
fitted  for  tearing  raw  flesh,  nor  those  which  are  proper  for 
cropping  grass,  his  organs  of  mastication  are  intermediate 
between  these,  and  are  better  constructed  than  either  for 
the  breaking  down  of  semi-hard  bodies,  or  those  of  mode- 
rate cohesion.     In  the  mild  or  savage  state  the  teeth  of 
man  would  hardly  be  sufficient  for  the  services  which  we 
might  suppose  would  be  required  of  them  ;  though  in 
this  as  in  other  cases,  the  organs  concerned  would  un- 
doubtedly be   strengthened   in   some   proportion   to   the 
power  required ;  hence  the  masticating  muscles  of  sav- 
ages, who  take  their  food  without  cooking,  are  far  more 
powerful  than  ours.     It  is  clear,  however,  that  the  masti- 
cating organs  of  man  were  not  intended  for  such  a  mode 
of  life,  but  on  the  contrary,  that  the  Creator  designed 
that  he  should  employ  a  portion  of  his  faculties  in  modi- 
fying and  preparing  the  natural  productions  of  the  earth    . 
for  his  food.     This  is  proved  most  clearly  from  the  struct- 
ure both  of  his  masticating  and  digestive  organs. 

322.  It  is  true  that  man,  in  his  natural  or  savage  state, 
has  the  power  of  digesting  many  substances  in  the  condi- 
tion of  natural  productions,  and  this  habit,  through  neces- 
sity, may  be  acquired  by  the  most  civilized.     There  are 
also  certain  vegetables,  as  ripe  fruits,  which,  in  their  natu- 
ral condition,  are  easy  of  digestion,  and  are  coveted  as 
delicacies  among  all  classes,  whether  savage  or  civilized. 

• 

How  do  our  teeth  compare  with  those  of  other  animals  ?  Are  the  teeth 
of  man  constructed  to  talte  food  in  its  natural  state  ?  What  is  the  con- 
clusion ? 


112 


ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 


Bur  that  these  can  only  be  employed  as  adjuvants  to  a 
more  nutritive  diet,  is  shown  by  the  fact,  that  whoever 
undertakes  to  live  exclusively  on  such  food  will  soon  find 
his  muscular  powers  in  a  condition  to  require  other  sup- 
port ;  and  yet  of  the  natural  productions,  it  would  seem 
that  the  pithy  and  succulent  fruits  would  afford  the  most 
wholesome  nourishment. 

323.  It  is  not  denied,  that  many  races  of  men  have 
lived,  and  do  still  contrive  to  subsist  on  food  taken  in  its 
uncooked  state  j  but  it  is  also  true  that  such  races  are 
generally  indolent  in  their  habits,  stinted  in  their  growth, 
feeble  in  muscular  powers,  and  often  nearly  or  quite  idiots 
in  their  intellects. 

324.  The  organization  of  man,  therefore,  appears  abso- 
lutely to  require,  both  for  the  development  of  his  animal 
system,  and  the  perfection  of  his  intellectual  powers,  that 
his  food  should,  at  least  in  part,  consist  of  the  flesh  of 
animals,  prepared  by  cooking  for  the  processes  of  masti- 
cation and  digestion,  and  without  which  it  appears  that 
he  cannot   perform  the   muscular  or  intellectual   duties 
which  his  station  in  the  scale  of  existence  demands. 


ORGANS    OF    DIGESTION. 


325.  Having  described  the  organs  by  which  the  food  is 
prepared  to  pass  into  the  stomach,  it  is  now  time  to  de- 
scribe that  organ  as  it  is  found  in  different  animals,  and  to 
point  out  more  particularly  than  we  have  done,  the  pro- 
cesses by  which  aliment  is  converted  into  nutrition. 

326.  Hitman  Stomach. — The  principal  organ  concerned 
in  digestion  is  the  stomach.     This  is  a  large  membranous 
bag,  situated  obliquely  across  the  lower  part  of  the  chest, 
Fig.  79.     Its  shape  is  not  unaptly  compared  to  that  of 
the  bellows  of  a  bag-pipe.     In  the  adult  man,  it  is  capa- 


Can  man  live  on  the  unprepared  productions  of  the  earth  or  not  ?  Is 
this  the  state  in  which  he  was  designed  to  live?  What  effect  does  this 
mode  of  living  have  on  the  human  race  ?  What  is  the  conclusion  with 
respect  to  the  food  of  man  ?  What  is  the  principal  organ  concerned  in 
digestion  ? 


ORGANS    OF    DIGESTION  113 

ole  of  holding  about  three  pints,  when  moderately  distend- 
ed     As  already  stated,  under  fig.  74,  a,  is  the  esophagus 

Fig.  79. 


or  passage  from  the  mouth ;  b,  the  cardiac  portion ;  c, 
the  left  extremity  ;  d,  the  small  extremity ;  and  e,  the 
pylorus,  tied  ;  g,  g,  the  omentum,  or  caul,  which  is  attached 
to  the  outside  of  the  stomach,  and  falls  down  from  it 
like  a  curtain. 

327.  Gastric  Juice. — The  chief  agent  concerned  in  di- 
gestion is  the  gastric  juice,  as  already  noticed.    This  fluid 
\s  secreted  by  the  inner  coat  of  the  stomach,  and  is  sup- 
posed  to  act   chemically  on   the    alimentary  substances, 
since   in   many   instances,   the    appearance    produced   is 
precisely  like   that  which  remains  after  the  action   of  a 
chemical  agent. 

328.  The    effect  of  the  gastric  liquor  on  different  sub- 
stances bears   no  proportion   to  their  mechanical  texture, 
or  other  physical  properties ;  for  while  in  some  animals  it 
speedily  dissolves  bone,  and  the   hardest  membranes,  it 
produces  not  the.  slightest  effect    on   other   substances  of 
the  most  delicate  texture,  as  the  fibres  of  cotton,  or   the 
skins  of  fruits. 


What  is  the  chief  agent  of  digestion  ?     In  what  manner  is  it  supposed 
that  the  gastric  fluid  operates  on  the  aliment  ? 

10* 


ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

329.  Physiologists  have  contrived  to  extract  the  gastric 
juice  from  the    stomachs  of  various  animals  by  means  of 
a   sponge,    which   being   introduced    in    the  dry   state  is 
withdrawn  filled  with  the  fluid,  which  being  squeezed  out, 
the    operation  is    repeated    until    a  quantity   for    experi- 
ment  is    obtained.     In    a    case    described    hereafter,    this 
was  unnecessary,  there  being    an    orifice  in    the    human 
stomach  through  which    the  juice  was  taken.     The  fluid 
thus   obtained    is  destitute  of   any  sensible  properties   by 
which  its  power    as  a  solvent  can  be  accounted  for.     It  fs 
a  clear  transparent  liquor,  with  a  little  taste  or  smell.   But 
its    action    on    various  substances   was  found  to  be   very 
peculiar    and  striking.       Spallanzani,    formerly  the   most 
celebrated    experimenter    on    this    subject,    found,    that 
when  boiled  meat  was  exposed  to  the  action  of  this  agent, 
from  the  human   stomach,  that  it  lost  its  fibrous   texture, 
and  was  finally  reduced  to  a  pultaceous  mass,  in  imitation 
of  the  actual  process  of  digestion. 

330.  It  was  found  abo,  that  this  juice  from  the  stomachs 
of  animals  of  different   races,  produced    different    effects, 
thus  proving  what  indeed  had  ever  been  proved  by  the 
animals  themselves,  that  the  stomachs  of  eagles  and  other 
carnivorous  animals  cannot  digest  vegetables,  nor  can  the 
sheep    and   ox  digest    meat.     That  from    the  stomach   of 
omniverous  man,  however,  was  found  to  dissolve  both  ve- 
getable and  animal  matter  with  equal    facility. 

332.  Chemical  effects  of  the  Gastric  Juice. —  Nearly  all 
physiologists  of  the  present  day,  are  agreed  that  the 
change  produced  by  the  action  of  the  gastric  fluid,  on  the 
aliment  of  the  stomach,  must  be  referred  to  chemical  prin- 
ciples, and  yet  nothing  can  be  detected  in  the  juice  itself 
by  chemical  analysis,  which  in  any  degree  accounts  for 
the  phenomena  produced. 

332.  The  coagulating  effect  of  the  gastric  juice  is  its 
most  obvious  property.  By  this  property,  fluid  substances, 
whether  animal  or  vegetable,  which  are  capable  of  coag- 
ulation, are  rendered  nearly  solid.  Thus  the  white  of 

When  the  gastric  juice  is  extracted  from  the  stomach  and  mixed  with 
food,  what  erfect  is  produced?  What  was  proved  with  respect  to  the 
capacity  of  different  animals  lo  digest  the  same  kind  of  food?  On  what 
principle  do  physiologists  account  for  the  effects  of  the  gastric  juice  ? 


COMPARATIVE    DIGESTION.  115 

oggs,  milk,  and  many  other  substances  susceptible  of  being 
converted  into  nutriment,  are  speedily  reduced  to  coagula, 
after  which  they  are  entirely  dissolved  by  the  gastric  juice. 
The  design  and  effects  of  this  provision  is,  to  retain  the  ali- 
ment in  the  stomach  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  be 
thoroughly  acted  upon  by  its  digestive  power.  For  it  has 
been  ascertained  by  experiment,  that  if  the  aliment  consists 
of  too  large  a  proportion  of  fluid  matter,  though  ever  so 
nutritive  in  its  qualities,  the  nourishment  it  affords  will  be 
but  small  in  quantity,  especially  if  the  fluid  be  incapable  of 
coagulation,  because  it  passes  beyond  the  stomach  before 
it  is  fully  digested  or  dissolved. 

333.  Dr.  Hunter  ascertained  that  this  coagulating  prop- 
erty belongs  to  the  gastric  fluid  of  every  animal  he  exam- 
ined  for  this   purpose,  from  man  down   to  the  reptiles. 
Experiments  on  the  digestibility  of  different  kinds  of  ali- 
ment will  be  found  in  another  place. 

COMPARATIVE    DIGESTION. 

334.  The  human  stomach,  as  we  have  seen,  is  exceed- 
ingly simple  in  its  construction,  consisting  merely  of  a  sin- 
gle sac,  with  two  apertures. 

335.  The  corresponding  part  of  herbivorous  animals 
consists  of  a  far  more  complex  apparatus,  being  composed 
of  four  distinct  sacs  or  stomachs,  communicating  with  each 
other,  and  exhibiting  as  a  whole,  one  of  the  most  impres- 
sive examples  of  creative  design,  anywhere  to  be  found  in 
animal  structures. 

336.  Stomach  of  a  Sheep. — The  delineation,  Fig.  80, 

Fig.  80. 


What  is  said  to  be  the  most  obvious  property  of  the  gastric  juice  ?  What 
is  said  concerning  fluid  nutriment  ? 


116  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

represents  the  stomach  of  a  sheep,  of  which.  1, 2,  3, 4, 
mark  the  four  divisions,  c,  being  the  esophagus,  and  P  the 
pylorus. 

337.  The  grass,  which  is  taken  in  large  quantities  by 
the  animals,  and  swallowed  in  nearly  a  dry  state,  and  with 
little  chewing,  is  first  received  into  the  large  sac,  or  store- 
room, number  1,  which  we  may  call  the  first  stomach. 
Here  it  is  softened  by  the  warmth  of  the  animal  and  a 
slight  degree  of  moisture.  Connected  with  this  is  the  sec- 
ond stomach,  number  2,  which  is  much  smaller ;  and  from 
its  internal  membrane  being  formed  into  irregular  folds, 
resembling  a  network,  it  is  called  the  honeycomb  stomach, 
or  reticule. 

338.  This   reticulated    appear-  Fig- 81 
ance  is  shown  by  Fig.  81,  which 

represents  a  portion  of  the  inner 
membrane  of  this  part. 

339.  A  singular    and    curious 
connexion  exists  between  this  stom- 
ach   and  the   first ;   for  while  the 
esophagus  appears  naturally  to  open 

into  number  1,  there  is  on  each  side  of  its  termination  a 
muscular  ridge,  which  projects  from  the  orifice  of  the  lat- 
ter, so  that  the  two  together  form  a  channel  leading  into 
the  second  stomach ;  and  thus  the  food  can  pass,  probably, 
at  the  will  of  the  animal,  iuto  either  of  these  cavities.  The 
design  of  this  arrangement  we  shall  see  directly. 

340.  From  the  observations  of  Sir  Everard  Home,  it 
appears  that  the  water  drank  by  the  animal  passes  directly 
into  the  second  cavity,  while  the  grass  always  enters  the 
first ;  these  apertures  must  therefore  be  opened  and  closed 
at  will,  or  by  a  natural  motion,  depending  on  the  irritative 
effects  of  the  grass  or  water. 

341.  After  ihe  large  sac  is  well  filled,  the  animal  goes 
to  rest,  generally  lying  on  the  ground,  when  the  grass  is 
transferred,  by  small  portions  at  a  time,  into  the  reticula- 
ted stomach,  where  it  is  moistened,  and  then  by  the  mus- 
3ular  action  of  the  part,  rolled  up  into  a  ball,  and  by  an 
inverted  action  of  the  esophagus,  thrown  up  into  the 
mouth,  where  it  is  masticated  at  leisure,  the  whole  form- 


COMPARATIVE    DIGESTION.  117 

ing  the  process  well  known  under  the  name  of  rumina- 
tion, or  chewing  the  cud. 

342.  After  the  mass  thus  elevated,  has  been  well  ground, 
by  the  molares,  it  is  again  swallowed  and  passed  into  No. 
3,  or  the  third  stomach,  the  orifice  of  which  is  brought 
forward  to  receive  it  by  the  action  of  peculiar  muscles, 
at  the  same  time  the  mouths  of  two  other  stomachs  being 
closed  to  prevent  its  admission. 

343.  The  food  is  now  prepared  for  digestion,  and  ac- 
cordingly passes  into  the   fourth   stomach,  when  being 
mixed  with  the  gastric  juice,  it  is  converted  into  chyle, 
which  passing  into  the  circulation,  becomes  the  nutriment 
of  the  animal.     Who  can  examine  such  mechanism  with- 
out feeling  astonishment  and  awe ;  and  without  seeing 
wisdom  and  design  1 

344.  In  the  calf,  the  milk  is   conveyed  directly  from 
the  esophagus  to  the  fourth  stomach,  where  it  is  coagu- 
lated by  the  gastric  liquor,  and  then  assimilated  into  nu- 
triment.    It  is  this  stomach  of  the  young  animal  which 
forms  the  substance  called  rennet,  and  which,  in  conse- 
quence of  the   gastric  juice    it   contains,  is   universally 
employed  to   coagulate   the    milk    for   the  formation  of 
cheese. 

345.  Relation  between  the  Horns  and  Stomach. — That 
there  should  exist  any  connexion  between  the  horns  of  an 
animal  and  its  stomach,  or  that  the  absence  or  presence.,; 
of  the   former  should  indicate   anything  in  reference  OF 
the  latter,  is  what  no  one  could  have  suspected  ;  and  yet 
Sir  E.  Home  has  shown  that  ruminants  with  horns,  as  the 
cow,  and  sheep,  and  goat,  are  universally  furnished  with 
four  stomachs  :  two  for  preparing  the  food,  one  for  rumi- 
nation, and  one  for  digestion,  as  already  explained ;  while 
those  without  horns,  as  the  camel,  lama,  and  rabbit,  have 
only  one  preparatory  stomach  before  rumination,  which 
answers  the  purpose  of  the  two  in  the  horned  animals. 
Why  such  a  difference  should  exist  in  animals  so  nearly 
allied  in  general  structure  and  habits,  is  one  of  the  mys- 
teries of  nature. 

346.  Water-Cells  in  the  Stomach  of  the  Camel. — There 


US  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

is  a  remarkable  provision  in  the  stomach  of  the  camel, 
by  the  use  of  which  that  animal,  and  no  other,  is  enabled 
to  traverse  the  wide  arid  arid  deserts  of  the  East. 

347.  The  second  stomach  of  this  animal  has  a  separate 
compartment,  in  which  is  situated  a  series  of  cellular,  or 
sac-like  appendages,  the  mouths  of  which  are  capable  of 
I  eing  closed  by  strong  muscular  bands.     These  cavities 
are  the  reservoirs  of  wrater,  so  often  spoke  of  by  those 
who  have  described  the  habits  of  this  animal. 

348.  When  the  camel  drinks,  the  muscular  bands  are 
relaxed,  and  the  cells  are  filled  with  the  fluid,  after  which 
their    mouths    are    closed,    and    the 

functions   of   the   stomach    are   per-  "" 

formed  as  usual.     When  the  contents 
of  the  stomach  require  to  be  moist- 
ened, which  is  indicated  by  a  sense  i 
of  thirst,  the  bands  are  relaxed,  and 
a   sufficient   quantity    is   allowed 
escape.     Fig.  82  represents  a  portion  ^jnH| 
of  the  stomach,   showing  these   ap-    | 
pendages  on  a  small  scale,  with  the    !|W§(PP^WflP 
muscular  bands  relaxed. 

349.  It  is  said  that  the  sagacious  animal,  when  about  to 
start  on  a  journey  across  the  desert,  which  he  probably 
discovers  by  the  preparations,  distends  these  water  vessels 
to  the  utmost  with  the  precious  fluid,  which  remains  pure 
and  sweet  to  the  end  of  the  journey. 

350.  Water-Cells  in  the  Elephant. — It  is  well  known 
that  the  elephant  has  a  method  of  dislodging  insects  from 
such  parts  of  his  body  as  he  cannot  reach  with  his  trunk, 
by  forcibly  ejecting  a   quantity  of  water  on   them ;  and 
this   he  does,  though  he  has  drank  no  water  for  several 
hours. 

351.  The  fountain  whence  the  elephant  obtains  water 
for  this  purpose,  appears  to  have  remained  a  mystery  until 
Sir  E.   Home  discovered  in  the  stomach  of  this  animal, 
a  cavity  similar  to  that  of  the  camel,   and  capable  of 


What  is  said  of  the  difference  in  the  stomachs  of  ruminants,  with,  and 
without  horns?    What  is  said  of  the  water  sacs  of  camels  ? 


FOOD   OF    MAN   AND  OTHER  ANIMALS.  119 

holding  about  six  quarts  of  fluid.  This,  when  filled,  is 
closed  up  by  a  muscular  band,  and  employed  not  only  for 
shooting  at  flies,  but  also  to  moisten  the  contents  of  the 
stomach,  if  occasion  requires. 

THE    FOOD   OF    MAN    AND    OTHER    ANIMALS. 

352.  It  is  the  object  of  this  work,  not  only  to  convey  to 
the  minds   of  youth,   such  a   knowledge   of  comparative 
and  human    physiology,  as   may  be  useful   to   them   for 
the   common    purposes" of  life,  but  also  to  instruct  them 
in  the  application  of  these    principles  to  their   own    per- 
sons, so   far,  at    least,  as  the  functions    of   the  stomach, 
muscles,  and  brain,  are  concerned.     With  this  view,  it  is 
proposed  here  to  inquire  into  the  subjects  of  food  and  di- 
gestion, more  particularly  than  we  have  done ;  what  we 
have  said  of  the  digestive  process  in  man,  being  only  an 
introduction  to  what  follows. 

353.  Elements  of  Nutrition. —  Chemistry  has  taught,  us 
that  the    most  important  principles    of  diet,  derived  from 
animal   substances    are  Jibrin,  albumen,  jelly,    osmazome, 
and  oil.       Fibrin    is    the  muscular    fibre,  composing  the 
lean  parts  of  all  meats  ;  albumen,  or   coagulable  lymph, 
composes  a  part   of  the   blood,  and   is    abundant   in   the 
animal    system.     The  white  of  an   egg   is   nearly   pure 
albumen  ;  jelly  and  oil  need  no    description  ;    osmazome 
is  a   peculiar  juice,  or   extractive  matter,  which  is   not 
coagulable   by  heat,  and  on  which  the   flavor  of  different 
meats    depends.     It  probably  consists  of  a  portion  of  the 
fibrin  slightly  altered  by  the  heat. 

354.  Food,  nutritive  and   digestible. — Articles  of  food 
may  be  considered  in  two  respects,  viz.,  as  nutritive  and 
digestible.      Substances    are    nutritive  in    proportion   to 
their   capacity  to   yield  the   elements   of  chyle ;  they  are 
digestible   in   proportion  to  the    facility  with    which  they 
are  acted  upon  by  the  gastric  juice.     Between  these  two 


What  are  the  nutritive  parts  of  animals?  What  is  albumen?  What 
is  osmazome  ?  In  what  proportion  are  substances  nutritive  ?  In  what 
proportion  are  they  digestible  ? 


120  ANIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 

properties  there  is  an  essential  difference  in  the  articles 
usually  employed  in  diet.  Some  substances  which  con- 
tain the  elements  of  chyle  in  abundance,  afford  little 
nutriment,  because  they  do  not  readily  go  through  the 
digestive  process ;  while  others  which  contain  compara- 
tively but  a  small  quantity  of  these  elements,  afford 
more  nourishment,  because  they  are  more  completely 
dissolved  by  the  gastric  juice.  Animals  in  the  natural 
state,  adhere,  with  remarkable  uniformity,  to  the  same 
kinds  of  food.  There  are  many  carnivorous  animals 
which  feed  only  on  a  certain  kind  of  flesh ;  some  upon 
the  flesh  of  quadrupeds ;  others  upon  that  of  birds ;  and 
others  again  upon  that  of  insects.  Among  herbivorous 
animals,  some  subsist  only  on  certain  kinds  of  plants ; 
others  on  certain  parts  of  particular  plants,  as  the  seed, 
the  fruit,  the  leaves,  and  so  on,  while  entire  tribes  of 
insects  appear  to  be  exclusively  attached  to  some  one 
species  of  vegetable  matter. 

355.  We  have  seen  that  there  is  a  manifest  connexion 
between    the  substances  on  which  animals  feed,  and  the 
structure  of  their  masticating  organs,  indicating  that  the 
selection  is  not  the  effect  of  accident,  but  depends  on  the 
original   conformation  of  the   parts.     Thus,  as  we    have 
already    shown,    the   teeth   of    some  are    constructed    for 
seizing  and  tearing ;  others  for  gnawing,  and  others  only 
for  cropping  the  delicate  parts  of  plants.     The  beaks  and 
claws  of  carnivorous  birds,  are  most  formidable  weapons ; 
while  those  of  the  goose   and  duck  are  formed   only  for 
scooping  and  swimming.     All  these   diversities  of  struc- 
ture are    obviously  adapted  to    receive  as  great   a  variety 
of  food.     We  have  seen,  also,  that  the  stomachs  of  ani- 
mals are  of  different  forms  and   capacities,  and  that  there 
is  an  intimate  relation  between  their  masticating  organs, 
and  the  powers  of  digestion. 

356.  Man  requires  a  Variety  of  Food. —  The  structure 
of  our  own  species,  as  already  shown,  places  man  between 
the   carnivorous    and   herbivorous   animals   with    respect 


Why  do  not  substances  containing  equal  portions  of  the  elements  of 
chyle  afford  equal  nourishment?  What  is  said  of  the  adherence  of  ani- 
mals to  the  same  kind  of  food?  Where  is  man  placed  in  the  scale  of 
creation  with  respect  to  his  food  ? 


FOOD   OF    MAN    AND   OTHER    ANIMALS.  121 

to  his  food,  and  therefore  he  has  the  power  of  accom- 
modating himself  to  a  wider  range,  and  a  greater  variety 
of  nourishment  than  any  other  -animal,  and  which  he 
seems  also  to  require. 

357.  For,  while  animals  in  the  natural  state  of  choice, 
confine  themselves  to  a  particular  kind  of  food,  the  organi- 
zation of  man,  it  would   appear,  makes  it  necessary  for 
him    to    partake    of  a  variety  of  nourishment.     We  do 
not  contend  that  the  stomach  of  man,  or  his  health  and 
vigor,  require  that  he  should  be  an  adept  in  the  science 
of  gastronomy,  and  indulge  in  the  stimulating  mixtures 
of  the  luxurious.     On  the   contrary,   the  physiology    of 
the  stomach,  as  well  as  the  known  consequences,  clearly 
prove,  that  th$  long-continued  use  of  highly  stimulating 
food  destroys  the    digestive    functions,   and    consequently 
tends  to  direct  debility,  and    visceral   derangement.     In- 
dependently of  the  use  of  vinous  or  alcoholic  admixture, 
it  is  clearly  proved,  that  a  protracted  use  of  highly  irri- 
tating   condiments,   not   only    induce    general    prostration 
of  muscular  power,  but    finally    exhaust   the   irritability 
of  the  digestive  organs,  and  cause  obstructions  in  other 
viscera,  so  as  to  superinduce  a  condition  of  the  whole  sys- 
tem, which  neither   future   abstemiousness,  nor   sanative 
remedies  can  change,  and  which,  therefore,  must  terminate 
in  a  general  dissolution  of  the  whole. 

358.  But  a  variety  and  admixture  of  nourishment  is  far 
from  involving    an    abuse    of  the    digestive  powers,  and 
that  the  organization  of  our  species  requires  such  a  va- 
riety, has  been  proved  by  various  and  repeated  experi- 
ments. 

359.  Dr.  Starts  Experiments. — The  fact   last   men- 
tioned, has  been  strikingly  illustrated  and  abundantly  proved 
by  the  recent  experiments  of  Dr.  Stark,  of  Vienna,  upon 
himself.     This  zealous  and   self-denying  experimentalist, 
in  order  to  establish  the  physiological  effects   of  various 
kinds   of  diet   on    the  human   system,  confined   himself 
exclusively   to   a   single    article   of  food,   for    a   certain 

Does  the  organization  of  man  require  a  variety  of  food  or  not  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  continued  use  of  stimulating  condiments?  What  were  the  ex- 
periments of  Dr.  Stark  *  What  were  the  results  of  these  experiments* 

11 


A.NIMAL    FUNCTIONS. 


length  of  time  ;  as  bread,  or  milk,  or  meat,  each  of  which 
in  its  turn,  was  his  sole  nutriment.  But  the  result  shoved 
that  the  system  is  invariably  brought  into  a  state  of  ex- 
treme debility  by  such  a  course  of  diet,  and  that  there  is 
not  a  single  *  article  of  food,  not  even  the  most  nutritious, 
that  is  capable  of  sustaining  the  vigor  of  the  body,  or  of 
even  maintaining  life  itself*  for  any  considerable  period  of 
time,  at  least  under  ordinary  exercise.  A  lamentable  proof 
of  this  was  exhibited  in  the  experimenter  above  named, 
who,  by  confining  himself  to  a  single  article  of  diet  for  a 
considerable  length  of  time,  as  already  stated,  finally  so 
ruined  his  constitution  as  to  bring  on  premature  death. 

360.  Dr.  Magendie's  experiments.  —  Ds,  Magendie,  of 
Paris,  resumed  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Stark,  so  far  as  to 
confine  various  animals  to  a  single  article  of  diet,  which, 
although  it  contained   an  abundance  of  nutriment,  was 
not  always  that  on  which  animals  naturally  subsist.     Thus 
dogs,  which   are  in  the  domestic  state,  are  omnivorous 
animals,  when  fed  on  white  sugar  and  water  alone,  soon 
become  emaciated,  lose  their   appetites    and   sight,    and 
perish  for  want  of  nutriment.     If  fed  on  white  bread  and 
water,  the  same  result  follows.     Rabbits,  which  eat  hay 
cabbage,  corn,  barley,  and  carrots  indiscriminately,  can- 
not live  for  any  length  of  time  when  confined  exclusively 
to  one  of  these  articles. 

361.  It  is  a  curious  and  instructive  fact,  that  when  an 
animal  has  become  emaciated  by  living  on  a  single  article 
of  food,  although  it  will  then  receive  other  kinds  of  food 
with   avidity,  yet  it  does  not  gain  its  strength,  but  con- 
tinues to  waste  away,  and  finally  dies  at  about  the  same 
time  it  would  have  done,  had  the  exclusive  diet  been 
continued. 

362.  Experiments  of  Sir  JJ.  Cooper.  —  Sir  Astley  Coop- 
er has  lately  made  a  variety  of  experiments  on  the  facili- 
ty with  which  many  substances  usually  employed  in  diet 


What  were  the  results  of  Dr.  Magendie's  experiments  on  animals? 
What  fact  is  stated  about  the  inability  of  animals  to  thrive  on  other  food 
after  being  long  confined  to  a  single  article  ? 


FOOD   OF   MAN    AND   OTHER    ANIMALS.  123 

»re  digested.  The  result  of  these  inquiries  show  that 
of  the  meats,  pork  is  that  which  passes  most  rapidly 
through  the  digestive  process ;  next  to  this,  mutton,  then 
veal,  and  lastly  beef,  which,  by  these  experiments,  ap- 
pears to  be  the  least  digestible  food  of  these  four  kinds  of 
meat. 

363  By  other  experiments,  he  found  that  Jjsh  and 
cheese  are  substances  of  very  easy  digestion,  and  that  the 
potato  passes  through  the  process  with  facility,  though 
with  less  rapidity  than  the  others.  Its  skin  is  entirely 
indigestible.  These  experiments  were  chiefly  made  on 
dogs. 

364.  Some  of  these  results  accord  with  the  general  ex- 
perience and  prejudices  of  dyspeptics  and  gastronomies, 
while  others  do  not.    There  is,  however,  a  great  difference 
in  the  action  of  different  stomachs,  which  often  appears  to 
depend  entirely  on  preconceived  opinions  and  prejudices. 

365.  There  is  an  intimate  connexion  between  the  gas- 
tric organs  and  the  brain,  and  in  consequence  of  which, 
an  opinion  formed  with  respect  to  the  capability  of  the 
stomach  to  digest   a   given  substance,  is  often  found  an 
experiment  to  be  realized.     Let  a  sedentary  dyspeptic,  for 
instance,  get  the  opinion  firmly  rooted  in  his  mind,  that  he 
cannot  digest  pork,  or  beef,  or  white  bread,  or  any  other 
article,  and  let  him  try  by  way  of  experiment  any  of  these, 
and  the  opinion  previously  formed  will  undoubtedly  be 
confirmed. 

366.  On  receiving  such  diet,  the  man  begins  to  examine 
nis  feelings ;  he  places  his  whole   mind  on  his  stomach : 
and  whether  it  be  so  or  not,  imagines  the  thing  lies  heavy, 
and  finally  actually  becomes  distressed,  for  fear  he  should 
be  so.     The  consequence  is,  that  the  process  of  digestion 
really  becomes  suspended,   and  this,  on  the   long-estab- 
lished and  well-known  principle,  that  fear  and  anxiety  by 
operating  through  the  nervous  system  produces  universal 
debility. 

367.  Dr.  Beaumont's  Experiments. — But  the  most  com- 
plete and  satisfactory  series  of  experiments  ever  made  on 


What  were  the  results  of  Sir  A.  Cooper's  experiments  with  respect  to 
the  digestion  of  different  kinds  of  meat  ?  What  is  said  of  the  influence 
of  prejudice  on  digestion? 


124  ANIMAL   FUNCTIONS 

the  subject  of  digestion  are  those  of  Dr.  Beaumont,  of  the 
United  States  army.  The  subject  of  these  experiments 
was  a  man  named  St.  Martin,  who,  in  consequence  of  a 
gun-shot  wound  which  perforated  his  stomach,  and  which, 
on  healing,  left  an  aperture  in  the  cavity  of  that  organ, 
presented  opportunities  before  unknowrn,  for  the  prosecution 
of  such  inquiries.  The  aperture  was  situated  betwreen  the 
left  breast  and  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  and  of  such  size  as 
to  enable  the  experimenter  to  introduce  various  substances, 
and  to  examine  the  food,  taken  in  the  usual  manner,  at 
any  time  during  the  process  of  digestion.  This  was  done 
without  pain  to  the  subject,  who  remained,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  his  wound,  a  sound  and  healthy  man,  perform- 
ing all  the  duties  of  a  common  laborer,  with  the  usual 
strength  and  facility. 

368.  Nature  had  formed  a  sort  of  valve  which  closed 
the  aperture  from  the  interior,  and  which  prevented  the 
contents  of  the  stomach  from   escaping,  but  on  pushing 
this  aside,  and  placing  the  body  of  the  subject  in  a  certain 
position,  either  the  food  or  gastric  juice  was  obtained  in 
any  desirable  quantity  for  experiment.    A  pint  of  the  latter 
was  sent  to  Europe  for  analysis  and  experiment. 

369.  The  results  of  Dr.  Beaumont's  inquiries  in  many 
instances  do  not  materially  differ  from  those  which  had 
been  ma.de  by  other  philosophers,  but  in  other  instances 
they  vary  considerably  from  any  which  have   heretofore 
be,en  made  public.     Our  limits  must  confine  us  to  the 
statement  of  only  a  few  of  the  most   important  results, 
among  the  great  number  which  the  volume  contains. 

370.  The  experiments  were  made  both  by  means  of  St. 
Martin's  digestive  organ,  and  by  the  gastric  juice  extract- 
ed and  placed  in  vials,  which  were  kept  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  100  degrees. 

371.  Boiled  rice  was  digested  in  the  stomach  in  1  hour, 
while  sago,   tapioca,  barley,  and  boiled   milk,  require  2 
hours   and    15   minutes.     Tripe   and   pigs'   feet   1   hour. 
Turkey,  roasted  and  boiled,  goose,  pig,  beef's  liver  broil- 
ed, lamb,  and  chicken,  wrere  digested  in  from  2  hours  18 
min.  to  2  hours  45  min.,  so  that  with  respect  to  these  sub- 
stances, it  appears  that  there  is  very  little  choice  as   to 
time.     Eggs,  hard  boiled,  3  hours  30  min.,  do.  soft  boiled, 


FOOD  OF  MAN  AND  OTHER  ANIMALS.  125 

3  h.  Custard  baked,  2  h.  45  m.  Codfish,  salted,  and 
boiled,  2  h.  Trout,  salmon,  boiled,  1  h.  30  m.,  do.  fried, 
same  time.  Bass,  striped,  3  h.  Flounder  and  catfish, 
each,  3  h.  30  m.  Beef,  fresh  and  lean,  rare  roasted,  3  h., 
do.  dry  roasted,  3  h.  30  m.  Salt  beef,  boiled,  2  h.  45  m., 
do.  with  mustard,  2  h.  30  m.  '  Beefsteak,  broiled,  3  h. 
Pork,  fat  and  lean,  roasted,  5  h.  15  m.  Pork,  recently 
salted  and  boiled,  4  h.  30  in.,  do.  fried,  4  h.  15  m.,  do. 
raw,  3  h.  Mutton,  fresh,  roasted,  3  h.  15  m.  Veal,  broil- 
ed, 4  h.  Fowls,  domestic,  boiled  and  roasted,  4  h.  Chick- 
en soup,  3  h. 

372.  Of  vegetables,  wheat-bread,  fresh  baked,  required 
3  h.  30  m.  Corn-bread,  3  h.  15  m.  Sponge  cake,  2  h. 
30  m.  Green  corn  and  beans,  3  h.  45  in.  Apple  dump- 
ling, boiled,  3  h.  Apples,  sour  and  mellow,  2  h.  Do. 
sweet  and  mellow,  1  h.  30  m.  Parsnips,  boiled,  2  h.  30  m. 
Potatoes"  boiled,  3  h.  30  m.,  do.  roasted,  2  h.  30  m.  Cab- 
bage-head, raw,  2  h.  30  m.,  do.  with  vinegar,  raw,  2  h., 
do.  boiled,  4  h.  30  m. 

373.  With  respect  to  the  experiments  with  the  gastric 
fluid  in  vials,  they  present  little  interest  when  compared 
with  those  made  on  the  living  animal.  We  may,  however, 
state,  that  it  requires  from  three  to  six  times  as  long  for 
the  digestive  solution  to  be  completed  in  this  way  as  in 
the  stomach. 

374.  Among  the  inferences. which  Dr.  Beaumont  draws 
from  all  his  experiments  on  this  subject,  are  the  following  : 

1.  That  animal,  and  farinaceous    aliments   are   more 
easy  of  digestion  than  vegetables. 

2.  That  digestion  is  facilitated  by  minuteness  of  division 
and  tenderness  of  fibre.    Hence  the  importance  of  thorough 
mastication  in  case  of  weak  stomachs. 

3.  That  the  ultimate  principles  of  aliment  are  always 
the  same,  from  whatever  kind  of  food  they  may  be  ob- 
tained.    The  chyle,  therefore,  from  vegetable  and  animal 
food,  consists  of  exactly  the  same  elements,  being  elabora- 
ted therefrom  by  the  gastric  action. 

4.  That  the  quantity  of  food  generally  taken  into  the 
stomach  is  greater  than  the  system  requires. 

5.  That  solid  food  of  a  certain  texture,  is  easier  of  di- 
gestion, than  fluid. 


126  ANIMAL    FLECTIONS. 

6.  That   stimulating  condiments  are  injurious  to  the 
healthy  stomach. 

7.  That  the  continued  use  of  ardent  spirits  always  pro- 
duces disease  of  the  stomach. 

8.  That  hunger  is  the  effect  of  distension  of  the  vessels 
that  secrete  the  gastric  juice. 

9.  That  the  temperature  of  the  stomach  is  one  hundred 
degrees  of  Fahrenheit 

10.  That  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice  dissolves  the 
food,  and  alters  its  properties. 

11.  That  the  gastric  liquor  coagulates  albumen,  and  af- 
terward dissolves  the  coagula. 

12.  That  the  gastric  juice  is  a  clear  and  transparent 
fluid,  a  little  salt,  and  perceptibly  acid  to  the  taste.    When 
pure,  it  suffers  no  change  by  keeping.    Dr.  Beaumont  hav- 
ing kept  a  quantity  in  a  vial  for  eleven  months  without 
any  perceptible  change. 

13.  That  gentle  exercise  facilitates  the  digestion  of  the 
food. 

14.  That  ivater,  ardent  spirits,  and  most  other  fluids, 
are  not  affected  by  the  gastric  juice,  but  disappear  from 
the  stomach  soon  after  they  are  received. 

375.  It  may  be  noticed  that  there  is  some  discrepancy 
between  Dr.  Beaumont's  results,  and  those  of  Sir  A.  Coop- 
er, especially  with  respect  to  the  digestion  of  pork  and 
beef.     But  since  the  former -experimenter  had  the  best  op- 
portunity ever  afforded  to  arrive  at  true  results,  while  those 
of  the  latter  were  chiefly  made  on  dogs,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  which  is  the  most  deserving  of  confidence. 

376.  The  facts  above  stated  are  so  plain  as  to  allow  any 
one  to  draw  his  own  inferences,  and  we  therefore  leave 
this  subject  to  the  reader,  which  has  already  been  carried 
to  an  extent  much  beyond  what  was  originally  intended 


127 
fa 


PART   IV. 


VITAL    FUNCTIONS 


CIRCULATION  OF   THE   BLOOD. 


377.  IT  is  but-  recently,  that  movements  in  the  fluids  of 
insects  analogous  to  the  circulation  in  the  larger  animals 
has  been  discovered.     At  the  present  time,  however,  all 
naturalists   agree  that  such  a  circulation   does  exist.     It 
will    be    remembered    that  insects    are    entirely    without 
lungs,  and  that  the  respiratory  function  is  carried  on  in 
them  by  means  of  minute  tubes  on  each  side  of  their  bodies, 
called  spiracles  or  stigmata. 

378.  Along  the  backs  of  insects  there  is  a  tubular  or- 
gan, called  the  dorsal  vessel.     This  extends  the  whole 
length  of  the  back,  and  is  found  in  every  stage  of  their 
development,  from  the  larva  to  the  perfect  state.     It  con- 
tains a  fluid  which  appears  to  have  a  wave-like  motion, 
backward  and  forward,  by  the  alternate  contractions  and 
dilations  of  the  muscles  of  the  vessel,  producing  a  kind  of 
pulsation. 

379.  This  organ  performs  the  office  of  the  hearts  of 
other  animals,  its  contractions  throwing  out  a  portion  of 
the  fluid  it  contains,  into  all  parts  of  the  insect,  even  into 
its  wings,  from  which  it  again  returns  to  the  dorsal  vessel, 
as  the  blood  does  to  the  heart 

380.  In  some  insects,  whose  bodies  are  transparent,  the 
whole  circulation  may  be  distinctly  seen  by  means  of  a 
microscope. 


128  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 

381.  In  the  ephemera  marginata,  a  little  four-winged 
fly,  the  motions  of  the  fluid  are  quite  distinct,  and  the 
course  it  takes  is  represented  by  Fig.  83,  the  direction  of 

Fig.  83. 


its  movements  being  indicated  by  the  arrows.  The  black 
line  along  the  back  is  the  dorsal  vessel ;  a  representing 
the  currents  in  the  antenna?,  w  in  the  wings,  and  t,  in  the 
tail.  In  all  these  parts  the  vessels  form  loops  derived  from 
the  main  vessels  of  the  trunk.  The  currents  of  blood  are 
unequal  in  their  motions,  being  accelerated  by  the  impul- 
sions they  receive  from  the  contractions  of  the  dorsal  ves- 
sel, which,  as  we  have  already  noticed,  is  the  substitute 
for  a  heart  in  these  animals. 


CIRCULATION  IN  THE  AMPHIBIA  AND  FISHES. 

382.  The  most  simple  apparatus  for  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  in  an  air-breathing  animal,  consists  of  a  single 
auricle,   a  single  ventricle,  with  two   arteries,  and   two 
veins,  or  rather  with  a  single  arteiy  and  vein  divided  into 
two  trunks  each. 

383.  Circulation  in  the  Frog. — These  parts  are  repre- 
sented as  they  exist  in  the  frog,  by  Fig.  84,  where  d  is 
the  auricle ;  e,  the  ventricle  \  a,  the  large  artery  which 
divides  and  sends  a  branch  to  r  ;  c,  the  great  vein,  called 
the  vena  cava,  which,  like  the  great  artery,  divides  and  also 

Explain  the  course  of  the  circulation  as  it  takes  place  in  insects. 


CIRCULATION  IN  THE  AMPHIBIA  AND  VISHES. 


129 


Fig.  84. 


sends  a  branch  to  r.  The  arrows  show  the  course  of 
the  circulation.  The  blood  flows  into  the  auricle  d, 
from  the  vein  c,  which  comes  from  all  parts  of  the 
body,  except  the  lungs,  It  also  flows  through  the  vein 
m,  which  comes  from  the  lungs,  and  is  called  the  pulmo- 
nary vein.  Both  these  vessels 
deliver  the  blood  in  a  continued 
stream.  When  the  auricle  is  fu1! 
of  blood,  it  contracts  and  throws 
its  contents  into  the  ventricle  c 
The  ventricle  then  contracts  and 
sends  a .  part  of  the  blood  through 
the  pulmonary  artery  n,  to  the 
lungs,  while  the  other  and  greater 
portion  passes  through  the  aorta,  c\ 
a,  to  all  the  other  parts  of  the 
system.  While  the  blood  is  thus 
flowing  through  the  larger  vessels 
near  the  heart  it  is  constantly 
passing  from  the  small  arteries 
into  the  small  veins,  which  com- 
municate with  each  other  in 
every  part  of  the  body,  as  shown 
at  6,  and  r.  These  little  veins  form  branches  which 
grow  larger  as  they  approach  the  heart,  as  those  of  the 
arteries  grow  smaller  as  they  recede  from  it,  in  the 
same  manner  that  the  limbs  of  a  tree  are  enlarged  as 
they  approach  the  root,  and  lessen  toward  the  top. 
The  circulating  fluid  being  thus  collected  from  all  parts 
of  the  system,  is  constantly  pouring  into  the  auricle  by 
the  great  veins,  to  be  again  sent  to  all  its  parts,  by  the 
ventricle,  and  so  on,  in  a  continued  round  during  the  life 
of  the  animal. 

384.  This  simple  or  single  apparatus  is  not  only  such 
as  is  found  in  the  frog,  but  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of 
the  circulating  system  in  all  the  cold  blooded  quad- 
rupeds. 

Explain  the  circulation  as  it  occurs  in  the  most  simple  form,  pointing 
out  the  names  of  the  different  parts  of  the  apparatus-,  and  showing  the 
course  of  the  blood.  To  what  class  of  animals  does  this  simple  circula- 
tion apply  ? 


130 


VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 


385.  On  inspecting  the  plan,  fig.  84,  it  may  be  remark- 
ed that  in  these  animals  only  one  half  of  the  blood  is  sent 
to  the  lungs  before  it  again  circulates   through  the  general 
system.       The    general    circulation,  therefore   consists   of 
one-half  arterial,  and  one  half  venous  blood.     We   shall 
see  directly  that  in  the   warm-blooded    animals   the   cir- 
culation is   double,  and  that  in  these  all  the  blood  is  sent 
through  the  lungs  to  be  aerated  or  exposed  to  the  influence 
of  the  atmosphere,  before  it  is  thrown  into  the  general  cir- 
culation.    It  will  be  seen,  also,  that  the  temperature  and 
vivacity  of  the  latter  class,  depend  on  the  exposure  of  the 
whole  mass  of  blood,  to   the  influence  of  the   oxygen  of 
the  atmosphere,  as  it  passes  the  lungs. 

386.  It  is  owing  chiefly  to  this  limited  circulation  that 
amphibious  animals  are  so  remarkably  distinguished  from 
others.     They  are  not  only  cold-blooded,  but  most  of  them 
are  sluggish,  languid  arid  exceedingly  tenacious  of  life,  so 
that  they  will  not  only  bear  the  strongest  stimulants  with- 
out injury,  but  may  have  their  limbs  amputated  with  only 
slight  marks  of  pain. 

387.  Circulation  in  Fishes. —  In  fishes  the  organs  of 
circulation  consists  of  four  cavities,  Fig.  85. 

c,  d,  e,f,  fig.  85,  with  a  system  of 
veins  and  arteries  for  conveying  , 
the  blood  to  and  from  the  heart.  ( 
Of  these  cavities,  d  is  the  auricle,  V 
and  e,  the  ventricle,  c  and  f, 
being  dilations  of  the  principal 
vein  and  artery,  at  their  junction 
with  the  heart.  The  heart,  in 
this  system  belongs  exclusively 
to  the  gills  or  branchia,  which  in 
fish  are  the  organs  of  respira- 
tion. There  is  no  aorta  proceed- 
ing from  the  heart  which  car- 
ries the  blood  to  all  parts  of  the 
system  as  in  other  animals. 
The  branchial  arteries  f,  convey 


What  kind  of  blood  circulates  through  the  systems  of  amphibious 
animals?  To  what  cause  are  the  coldness  and  languor  of  these  animals 
owing  ?  Which  is  the  auricle,  and  which  the  ventricle  in  the  heart  of  a 
fish* 


CIRCULATION   IN    WARM-BLOODED  ANIMALS.  131 

the  blood  to  the  gills,  g,  h.  There  it  is  aerated,  or  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  which  the  water  contains.  It  is  then 
collected  by  the  branchial  veins  i,  which,  instead  of  car- 
rying it  directly  to  the  heart,  as  in  man,  unite  in  a  single 
large  trunk  a,  which  passes  down  the  back,  and  per- 
forms the  office  of  the  aorta,  by  distributing  it  to  the 
different  parts  of  the  body.  The  circulating  fluid  is  then 
conveyed  to  the  auricle  d,  by  the  large  vein  c,  which 
answers  to  the  vena  cava.  The  blood  then  .passes  into 
the  ventricle  and  begins  its  circulation  as  before. 

388.  In   fishes,  the   heart   is   exceedingly   small  when 
compared  to  that  of  other  animals  of  the  same  bulk,  its 
weight  being  only  to  that  of  the  body,  as  1  to  351,  or 
even  1  to  768  in  the  different  species;    while  in  man 
the  weight  of  the  heart  is  to  that  of  the  body,  as  1  to 
about  160. 

389.  The  proportion  of  blood  in  this  class  is  also  very 
small,  and  the  vessels  few  in  number.     The  quantity  of 
oxygen  likewise,  which  fishes  obtain,  being  only  that  con- 
tained in  the  air  of  the  water,  nfust  be  exceedingly  minute. 
Hence  it  is,  that  their  flesh  is  white,  presenting  a  remark- 
able contrast  to  the  red  color  of  that  of  animals  belonging 
to  the  higher  orders,  as  quadrupeds  and  man. 

CIRCULATION    IN    WARM-BLOODED    ANIMALS. 

390.  In  proportion  as  animals  rise  in  the  scale  of  organi- 
zation and  capacity,  so  does  the  complexity  of  the  appara- 
tus for  carrying  on  the  circulation  increase. 

391.  Amphibious  animals  and  fish,  as  just  shown,  are 
provided  with  a  single  auricle,  and  a  single  ventricle,  only. 
But  in  all  warm-blooded  animals  there  are  two  auricles 
and  two  ventricles,  and  two  systems  of  circulation.     In 
the  first,  the  heart  is  single ;  in  the  last,  it  is  double ;  one 
being  for  the  circulation  through  the   lungs,  called  the 
pulmonic  ;  the  other  for  the  general  circulation,  called  the 
systematic.     The  pulmonic  is  on  the  right  side ;  the  sys- 
tematic on  the  left. 


What  office  does  the  heart  perform  in  the  fish?  What  is  said  of  the 
size  of  the  heart  in  fish  ?  What  is  the  difference  between  the  heart  of  a 
fish,  and  that  of  a  quadruped  ? 


132 


VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 


39:2.  'Die,  two  Hearts  separated. — The  two  hearts  in  the 
natural  state  are  joined  together,  but  that  the  student  may 
the  more  clearly  -comprehend  the  two  systems,  they  are 
here  represented  separately,  Fig.  86. 

393.  In  this  plan,  d  rep-  Fig.  86. 
resents   the    right    auricle , 

e,  the  right  ventricle;  7c, 
the  left  auricle ;  /,  the  left 
ventricle ;  a,  the  aorta ;  i, 
the  pulmonary  veins ;  f9 
the  pulmonary  arteries  ; 
c,  the  vena  cava;  6,  the 
meeting  of  the  small  bran- 
ches of  the  aorta,  and  vena 
cava,  and  h,  the  meeting 
of  the  pulmonary  veins  and 
arteries. 

394.  The  circulation  is  as     , 
follows.     The  blood  is  con-  U 
veyed  by  the  vena  cava,  f,  '  I 
to  the  right  auricle,  d,  and 
poured    into -the  ventricle, 

e,  which  contracting,  throws  it  through  the  pulmonary 
artery,  f9  to  the  lungs,  where  it  is  oxygenated,  or  puri- 
fied, and  made  fit  for  general  circulation.  The  pulmonary 
veins  then  receive,  and  convey  it  to  the  left  auricle,  /c,  by 
which  it  is  transmitted  to  the  ventricle,  /,  which  contracting 
with  great  power,  propels  it  to  all  parts  of  the  system 
through  the  aorta  a.  From  the  small  branches  of  the  aorta, 
it  is  received  into  those  of  the  vena  cava,  by  which  it  is 
transmitted  to  the  right  auricle,  the  point  where  we  com- 
menced. In  all  the  mammalia  and  birds,  this  is  the 
routine  of  the  circulation. 

395.  The  two  Hearts  united. — It  only  now  remains  to 
show  the  two  hearts  of  man  united,  that  the  pupil  may  ob- 
serve how  they  naturally  exist  as  a  single  organ  in  external 
appearance.     Fig.  87  represents  the  double  heart,  show- 


What  are  the  two  systems  of  circulation  in  quadrupeds  and  man  called? 
Describe  the  circulation  in  man. 


CIRCULATION    IN    WARM-BLOODED   ANIMALS. 


133 


mg  the  several  parts  as  they  actually  exist.     The  upper 
a,  shows  the  pulmonary  vein,  the  lower  a,  the  vena  cava ; 


Fis.  S7. 


6,  5,  the  right  and  left  auricles ;  c,  c,  the  right  ana  left 
ventricles ;  e,  e,  the  right  and  left  branches  of  the  pulmo- 
nary artery ;  d,  d,  the  aorta. 

396.  But  notwithstanding  the  two  hearts  are  thus  united 
within   a  single  envelope,  the  right  and  left  cavities  are 
perfectly  distinct  from  each  other,  as  represented  by  Fig. 
86 ;   the  two  ventricles  having  between  them  a   strong 
muscular   partition,   which   allows  of  no    communication 
from  one  side  to  the  other. 

397.  In  the  lower  orders  of  animals,  as  already  shown, 
the  circulating  fluid  is  composed  of  one-half  venous  blood, 
or  blood  which  has  not  passed  through  the  purifying   and 
renovating  influence  of  the  lungs.     In  the  heart  just  de- 
scribed, the  two  systems  of  circulations  are  so  separated  as 
to   entirely  prevent  the  two  kinds  of  blood  from  mixing 
with  each  other. 

398.  The  color  of  the  arterial  blood  is  light  red,  while 
that  of  the  veins  is  dark  purple.     This  change  is  produced 
1  y  the  exposure  of  the  venous  blood  to  the  air  in  its  pas- 
sage through  the  lungs,  by  which  it  either  loses  a  portion 


Are  the  pulmonic  and  systematic  circulation  perfectly  distinct  in  the 
warm-blooded  animals  ?  What  is  the  color  of  arterial  blood  ?  What  is 
the  color  of  venous  blood  ?  How  is  this  change  of  color  produced  ? 

12 


134  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 

of  carbon,  or  absorbs  a  quantity  of  oxygen,  as  will  be  seen 
when  we  come  to  treat  of  respiration. 

399.  The  two  Hearts  act  together. — With  respect  to  the 
time  at  which  the  two  hearts  act,  there  is  the  most  won- 
derful precision  and  order.     The  blood  which  returns  from 
the  systematic,  and  that  from  the  pulmonic  circulation,  the 
first  through  the   vena  cava,  and  the  other  through  the 
pulmonary  veins,  both  fill  their  respective  auricles  at  the 
same  moment,  so  that  their  contractions  are  simultaneous; 
and  in   like   manner  the  ventricles  throw  their  contents, 
the  one  to  the  lungs,  and  the  other  to  the  whole  system, 
at  the  same  instant.     So   that   while  the  left  ventricle  is 
propelling   the  purified  fluid  to    all  parts  of  the  body  to 
renovate  its  powers,  the  right  ventricle  is  throwing  the 
vitiated  blood  to  the  lungs  to  prepare  it  for  the  same  office. 
Thus  the  same  blood,  which  during  the  interval  of  one 
pulsation  was  moving  through  the  lungs,  is  at  the  next 
circulating  through  the  body. 

400.  Number  of  Pulsations,  and  Muscular  Power  of 
the  Heart. — The  ventricle  of  the  human   heart  contains 
only  about  an  ounce  of  blood,  but  this  is  changed  more 
than  sixty  times  every  minute.     Estimating  the  number 
of  contractions  at  seventy  per  minute,  which  is  about  the 
medium  number  in  health,  then  the  quantity  of  blood  which 
passes  through  the  heart  is  about  three  hundred  pounds 
every  hour  of  our  lives,  making  upward  of  three  tuns  in 
each  24  hours. 

401.  "  An  anatomist,"  says  Paley,  "  who  understood  the 
structure  of  the  heart,  might  say  beforehand  that  it  would 
play  ;    but  he  would  expect  from  the  delicacy  of  some 
of  its  parts,  and  the  complexity  of  its    mechanism,  that 
it    would    always    be    liable    to    derangement,  or  that   it 
would    soon    work    itself    out,    yet    does   this   wonderful 
machine  go  on,  night  and  day,  for  eighty,  nay,  a  hun- 
dred years  together,  at  the  rate  of  a   hundred  thousand 
strokes  every  24  hours,  having  at  every  stroke  a  great 
resistance  to  overcome,  and  will  continue  this  action,  for 

In  what  order  do  the  two  ventricles  of  the  heart  act?  What  different 
offices  do  the  two  ventricles  possess  ?  How  much  blood  passes  through 
the  heart  every  24  hours  ? 


CIRCULATION  IN  WARM-BLOODED  ANIMALS.  135 

this  length  of  time  without  disorder  and  without  weari- 
ness. To  those  who  venture  their  lives  in  ships,  it  has 
often  been  said,  that  there  is  only  a  plank  between  them 
and  destruction ;  but  in  the  body,  and  especially  in  the 
arterial  system,  there  is  in  many  parts  only  a  membrane, 
a  skin,  a  thread." 

402.  Effects   of  Alcohol   on   the    Circulation.— •"  "W e 
may  suppose,"  says  Dr.  Barry,  "  that  the  more  quick  the 
motion  of  the  blood,  the  sooner  old  age  will  advance,  or  the 
sooner  the  machine  will  wear  out,  and  other  circumstan- 
ces being  equal,  that  the  number  ef  years   which  all  men 
may   attain,  will  be  in  reciprocal  ratio  to  the  velocity  of 
their  pulses.     If  we  allow  70  years  to  be  the  age  of  man, 
and  sixty  pulses   in    a  minute  for    the   common  measure 
of  a  temperate  man,  then  we  should  have  2,209,032,000, 
as  the  number  of  pulsations  during  his   life.     But  if  an- 
other, by   reason  of  intemperance,   forces  his  blood  into 
motion  at  the  rate  of  75  pulses  in  a  minute,  then  instead 
of  living  three-score  and  ten  years,  he  will  run  through 
his  whole  number  of  pulsations  in  56  years,  thus  cutting 
short  his  days  by  the  term  of   14  years." —  Barry  on   Di- 
gestion, London,  1759. 

403.  This  is  certainly  a  sober  consideration  and  ought 
to  be  carefully   weighed  by  those    who  urge  along   the 
current  of  their  blood   by  mixing  it  with    alcohol,  for  as 
we  have  already   seen,   this  liquid  is  taken  into  the  blood 
in  the  same  state  in  which  it  goes  into  the  stomach,  the 
gastric  liquid  having  no   power  to   change   it  into    nour- 
ishment.     The   circulating  fluid  of  him  who  drinks  dis- 
tilled   spirits,  though  it  be  mixed  with  water,  is  therefore 
a  compound  of  blood  and   alcohol,  which  stimulating  the 
left  ventricle,   and  making  it   contract  with  unwonted   ra- 
pidity, increases  the  number  of  pulsations,   and  exhaust- 
ing the  irritability,  produces  a  weak  and  flabby  condition 
of  the  machinery,  which    finally   refuses  to  perform   its 
functions,  the  miserable  possessor  sinks  down    and   dies 
before  his  time. 

What  is  said  concerning  the  quickness  of  the  pulse,  and  the  age  to 
which  a  man  may  live?  How  much  is  it  supposed  that  a  person  may 
shorten  his  days,  by  quickening  his  pulse  five  times  a  minute  by  stimu- 
lants ?  Is  alcohol  digestible  or  not  ?  What  is  the  composition  of  one's 
blood  who  drinks  spirits  ? 


136  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 

404.  JLlcohol  not  the  product  of  Distillation. — It  was 
once  supposed  that  the  chemical  changes  which  any  fer- 
mented liquor  undergoes  to  produce  alcohol,  took  place 
only  when  it  was  heated,  and   that  thus  alcohol  was  the 
product  of   distillation.      This  supposition,   though   long 
since  exploded  by  the  light  which  analytical  chemistry 
has  thrown  on  the  subject  of  the  composition  of  bodies, 
is  still  maintained  by    the  ignorant.     Thus  it   was  said 
that  the  juice   of  the   grape,  by  the  vinous  fermentation 
merely,  never  produced   alcohol,  and  therefore,  if  a  wine 
could   be   obtained   and  kept   without   any  admixture  of 
brandy,  we  should  have   a   liquor  free  from   the  former 
pernicious    element.      Acting,  perhaps,    entirely  on  this 
belief,    several-   importers    sent   to    their    foreign    corre- 
spondents to  have  wine  manufactured  without  the  addi- 
tion of  brandy,  and  thus  the   country  was  furnished  with 
a  wine  which  many  people  believe  contains  no  alcohol ; 
and  not  a  few  who  on   no   account   would  touch  a  drop 
of  common   wine,  do  not  hesitate  to  take  freely  of  this. 
It  is  not  a  little  surprising,  by  the  wray,  that  such  do  not 
find  by  the  cheering  effects  that  this  wine  contains   alco- 
hol, as  well  as  that  made  in  the  usual  manner,  with  which 
it  is  well  known   a  certain  portion   of  brandy  is  mixed. 
This  is  done  under  the   impression  that  the  juice  of  the 
grape  does  not   naturally  produce  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
alcohol  to  preserve  the  wine,  and  therefore,  without  the 
addition  of  a  little  brandy,  or  alcohol  in  some  other  form, 
the  vinous  would  run   into  the  acetous  fermentation,  and 
thus,  that   the    wine  would  become  vinegar.     With   re- 
spect  to  certain  light  wines,  this  is   true,  but  experience 
appears   to  have   proved   that   there   is  a  difference   in 
grapes  in  this   respect,  and  that  some  kinds   of  wine  do 
not  require  any  addition  of  alcohol  for  their  preservation, 
that  which  the  juice  produces  being  amply  sufficient  for 
this  purpose. 

405.  Now,  this  is  not  the  place  to  go  into  a  history  of 
this  subject,  and  we  have  made  this  digression  merely  for 
the  purpose  of  showing  those  who  still  maintain  that  alco- 
hol  is  the  product   of  distillation,  and  that  therefore  he 
who  drinks  the  pure  juice  of  the  grape,  drinks  no  alco- 
hol, labors,  or  rather  drinks  under   a  mistake,  and  that 
he  who  receives  into   his   stomach   this  kind  of  wine, 


CIRCULATION    IN    WARM-BLOODED   ANIMALS.  137 

urges  forward  his  circulation,  and  increases  the  number  of 
his  pulsations,  equally  with  him  Avho  takes  any  other  kind 
of  wine  containing  the  same  proportion  of  alcohol.  For, 
in  respect  to  the  intoxicating  effects,  it  makes  no  difference 
whether  the  alcohol  be  the  natural  product  of  the  grape, 
or  whether  it  is  added  in  the  form  of  brandy. 

406.  That  alcohol  is  the  product  of  the  vinous  ferment- 
ation only,  and  that  it  exists  in  all  fermented  liquors,  be- 
fore they  are  heated,  or  distilled,  and  therefore  that  it  is 
not  produced,  but  only  obtained  in  a  separate  state  by  dis- 
tillation, is  shown  by  "the  fact,  that  it  can  be  separated 
from  wine,'  cider,  beer,  or  any  other  fermented  liquor,  by 
several  processes   in  which  no   heat  above  the  .ordinary 
temper  at  are  of  the  atmosphere  is  employed. 

407.  The  author  of  this  work,  about  six  years  since, 
made  a  series  of  experiments  on  many  kinds  of  fermented 
liquors,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  per  centage 
of  alcohol  which  might  be  obtained  from  them  without 
heat ;  and  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  desire  to  satisfy 
themselves  on  this  point,  he  will  state  in  few  words,  how 
they  can  do  so.     Take  a  glass  tube,  say  two  feet  long, 
and  half  fill  it  with  cider,  or  wine,  to  which  it  is  known 
no   alcohol  has  been   added.     Then  drop  into  the  tube 
some  carbonate  of  potash,  previously  well  dried  by  heat, 
and  continue  to  do  so  until  all  the  water  of  the  cider  or 
wine  is  absorbed  by  the  potash-,  and  the  alcohol  rises  to 
the  surface.     This  wrill  be  known  by  the  appearance  of 
the  alcohol  and  its  separation  from  the  water  at  the  upper 
part  of  the   tube.      The   liquor    thus   obtained,   may  be 
tested  by  burning,  or  in  any  other  way  most  satisfactory 
to  the  experimenter.     This  simple  method  is  merely  in- 
tended for  those  who  desire  to  satisfy  themselves  whether 
alcohol  is  the  product  of  distillation  or  not,  the  per  centage 
requiring  a  more  careful  analysis,  though  precisely  on  the 
same  principles. 

408.  Alcohol  may  also  be  obtained  from   a  fermented 
liquor,  by  exhausting  the  air  from  its  surface  by  means  of 
an  air-pump,  in  consequence  of  which,  the  alcohol,  being 
lighter  than  the  other  ingredients  of  the  liquor,  will  rise  to 
the  surface. 

409.  By  means  of  the  potash,  the  author  found  that  a 

12* 


138  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 

sample  of  the  pure  juice  of  the  grape  contained  about  14 
per  cent,  of  alcohol. 

410.  Muscular  Force  of  the  Heart. — Some  of  the  old 
physiologists  attempted  to  compute  in  numbers,  the  force 
of  the  muscular  contractions  of  the  heart,  but  this  appears 
to  be  impracticable,  and  if  it  could  be  done,  would  pre- 
sent  a  mere  physiological  curiosity.     That  the  heart  con- 
tracts with  an  enormous  power,  when  compared  with  its 
size  as  a  muscle,  there  is  no  doubt.     The  obstacles  it  has 
to   overcome  in   dilating  the  contractile  tendency  of  the 
arteries  through   all   their   ramifications,  must   alone    re- 
quire a  very  considerable  force.     It  must  be  remembered, 
that  it  requires  a  much  greater  mechanical  force  to  pro- 
pel   a   fluid    through    an    angular  or  tortuous   tube  than 
through   a  straight  one ;  and  that  few  of  the  arteries  run 
in   a  direct  course,  many  of  them  making  a  full  semi- 
circle in  passing  from  the  heart  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
system.     This  may  be  observed  on  viewing  the  plans  of 
the  heart,  where  it  will  be  seen  that  the  great  circle  of 
the   aorta   must   materially  impede   the  velocity  of  the 
blood  through  it.     But  notwithstanding  these  obstacles, 
we  find  that  the  force  of  the  blood  through  the  arteries, 
even  in  the    extremities,  is  so   great,   that  when  we  sit 
cross-legged,  the  pulsation  of  the  artery  in  the  ham,  which 
is  pressed  by  the  under  knee,  is  so  strong   as  to  raise  the 
whole  extremity,  arid   give  it  a  vibratory  motion  at  each 
beat  of  the  heart.     When  we  consider  the  length  of  the 
lever,  the  shortness  of  the  purchase,  and  the  elastic  nature 
of  the  fulcrum,  we  cannot  but  be  astonished  at  the  prodi- 
gious force  with  which  the  heart  must  contract,  in  order 
to  give  such  power,  at  such  a  distance,  to  a  little  artery 
not  larger  than  a  pipe  stem. 

411.  Operative  surgeons  are  well  aware  of  this  con- 
tractile force,  when  they  have  to  do  with  wounded  arte- 
ries, for  in  most  cases  it  is  found  that  compression  is  en- 
tirely inadequate  to  bring  the  sides  of  an  artery  into  such 
contact  as  to  stop  the  bleeding ;  and  even  ligatures,  if  not 


What  is  said  of  the  power  with  which  the  heart  contracts?    What 
proofs  are  given  of  this  contractile  power  ? 


RESPIRATION.  139 

very  carefully  tied,  are  no  security  against  the  impetus  of 
the  blood. 


RESPIRATION. 


412.  Respiration,  or  breathing,  is  the  act  of  receiving 
a  portion  of  air  into,  and  throwing  it  out  of  the  lungs. 
Receiving  the  air,  is  called  inspiration,  and  rejecting  it, 
expiration. 

413.  Atmospheric  air  is  so  absolutely  necessary  to  the 
organized  creation,  that  neither  plant  nor  animal  can  live 
without  it.     No  vegetable  seed  will  germinate  without  a 
portion  of  air,  nor  will  the  eggs  of  injects  change  into 
larvae  if  confined  in  a  vacuum. 

414.  Even  the  most  minute  animals,  and  those  which 
are  most  tenacious  of  life,  as  the  infuriosa,  which  may  be 
dried  and  kept  any  length  of  time,  and  revived  again  by 
moistening,  are  still  unable  long  to  survive  when  deprived 
entirely  of  air. 

415.  It  is  true  that  a  great  proportion  of  animals  are 
so  constructed  as  'to  require  but  a  very  minute  portion  of 
air.     Thus  the  Mollusca,  and  Fish,  which  live  constantly 
under  water,  can  only  receive  that  with  which  the  fluid  is 
mixed.  But  the  Creator  has  amply  provided  for  the  wants 
of  these  creatures  in  this  respect,  by  giving  the  fluid  in 
which  they  live  the  power  and  propensity  to  absorb  air, 
so  that  water  in  its  natural  state,  at  whatever  depth  from 
the  surface  it  may  be  taken,  is  always  found  to  contain  a 
portion.     But  if  the  water  in  which  a  Fish  is  confined  be 
covered  with  oil,  by  which  the  air  is  entirely  excluded,  the 
Fish  soon  dies. 

416.  As  we  ascend  the  scale  of  organization,  we  find 
that  animals  require  more  and  more  air,  and  that  they  in- 
crease in  vivacity  and  power  in  some  proportion  to  the 
quantity  which  they  consume.  In  the  very  lowest  orders, 
there  is  no  provision  of  any  special  organs  for  respiration. 
Thus  in  some  of  the  Zoophytes,  the  organs  of  nutriment 
and  those  of  respiration  arethe  same.  In  others  this  func- 


^^  \ 

What  is  meant  by  respiratinfc ?  Whatis*said  of  the  necessity  of  air  to 
plants  and  animals  ?  Where  do  fish  obtain  air  ?  What  is  the  difference 
between  the  lower  and  higher  orders  with  respect  to  air  * 

V 


140  VITAL   FUNCTIONS. 

lion  is  performed  by  the  skin  But  in  those  which  are  A 
step  above  these,  we  find  some  special  preparations  for 
this  function.  In  the  Mollusca  the  organs  of  respiration 
are  situated  near  the  outer  margin  of  the  shell,  and  con- 
sist of  parallel  filaments  arranged  like  the  teeth  of  a  fine 
comb.  These  are  called  branchia  or  gills. 

417.    Respiration  of  the   Oyster. — These  organs  are 
represented  by  Fig.  88.     Their  mechanism,  when  closely 
Fig.  88. 


examined,  is  exceedingly  curious,  and  somewhat  intricate. 
There  is  a  triangular  canal,  d,  which  leads  through  the 
whole  length  of  the  organ  w7here  it  is  attached  to  the 
body.  By  means  of  this,  the  water  is  admitted  to  the  in- 
terior of  the  gills  generally.  Beside  this  provision  for  the 
admission  of  water,  by  a  sort  of  canal,  there  are  numerous 
small  apertures,  e,  by  which  the  fluid  is  sent  to  every 
feather  of  the  gills.  The  parts  ff,  are  the  feathery  ex- 
tremities of  this  organ,  which  appear  like  a  treble  fold  of 
some  fine  fabric,  suspended  like  a  festoon. 

4 18.  After  the  water  thus  admitted  into  the  branchia  has 
performed  its  office  of  aeration,  it  is  again  expelled  by  a 
different  opening. 

419.  Another  step  in  the  scale  of  animal  existence, 
brings  us  to  the  Fishes,  the  branchial  apparatus  of  which 
is  much  more  complicated  and  important  than  that  of  the 
Mollusca.     In  these,  the  respiratory  action  is  more  essen- 


What  are  the  respiratory  organs  called  in  the  mollusca  and  fishes  ? 
How  is  respiration  performed  in  the  oyster  ? 


RESPIRATION. 


141 


tial  to  life,  than  in  the  lower  orders.  A  fish  soon  ex- 
pires if  taken  out  of  the  water,  but  an  oyster  will  live 
for  weeks,  with  only  that  which  it  retains  in  the  shell. 

420.  Respiration  in  Fishes. — One  side  of  the  gilte  of 
a  fish  is  distinctly  represented    by  Fig.  89,  which   also 
shows  the  heart  and  artery  by  which  pig.  65. 

the  blood  is  sent  to  these  parts.  Of  the 
heart,  d,  in  the  auricle ;  e,  the  ventri- 
cle ;  6,  the  enlargement  of  the  artery, 
called  the  bulbous  arteriosus,  which  is 
shown  distinctly  in  Fig.  85,  f,  the 
branchial  artery  ;  g,  g,  the  gills.  We 
here  have  an  opportunity  of  observing 
how  near  the  heart  of  the  fish  is  to 
the  lungs,  and  consequently  of  infer- 
ring the  importance  of  well  supplying 
these  parts  with  blood.  This  arises 
from  the  circumstance  that  the  heart 
throws  the  blood  only  to  the  gills,  and 
not  to  the  other  parts  of  the  body  as 
in  the  other  animals,  hence  a  large 
proportion  of  the  blood  of  the  whole 
system  is  constantly  in  the  gills,  to  be  well  purified  by  the 
air  before  it  circulates  through  the  other  parts,  and  this 
is  the  reason  why  these  parts  are  highly  colored  with 
blood,  while  the  other  parts  of  the  fish  are  white. 

421.  The  gills  consist  of  filaments  arranged  somewhat 
like  the  feathers  of  a  quill.     When  these   filaments   are 
closely  examined,  they  are  found  to  be  covered  with  mi- 
nute processes  crowded  close  together,  and  on  which  may 
be  observed  millions  of  capillary"  blood-vessels,  spread  like 
a  net-work,  over  the  whole  surface.    It  is  through  the  thin 
coats  of  these  vessels  that  the  air  acts  upon  the  blood  they 
contain. 

422.  In  the  osseous,  or  bony  fishes,  there  is  a  large 
flap,  called  the  operculum,  which  covers  the  gills  from 
injury,  and  below  which  there  is  an  opening  for  the  escape 
of  the  water,  after  it  has  performed  its  office.     The  pro- 


How  is  this  function  carried  on  in  the  fish? 


142  VITAL   FUNCTIONS. 

cess  of  respiration  is  performed  by  taking  the  water  into 
the  mouth,  and  forcing  it  through  the  gills,  which  sepa- 
rating their  filaments,  exposes  every  part  to  its  action. 

423.  In  the  cartilaginous  fishes,  or   those  which  have 
no  bony  frame,   as  the  Lamprey,  there  is  no    operculum 
provided  for  the  escape  of  the  water  during    respiration, 
but  instead  of  this,  there  are  several  apertures    along  the 
sides  of  the  neck,  or  throat,  through  which  the   fluid  is 
thrown. 

424.  Respiration  in  the,  Lamprey. —  In  the  Lamprey, 
often  called  the  Lamper-eel,  which  is  one  of  the  cartila- 
ginous tribe,  the  organs  of  respiration  are   so   constructed 
as  to  be  independent  of  the  mouth  in  receiving  the  water. 
In  this  fish  there  are  seven  external  openings,  fig.  90,  on 


90. 


each  side,  leading  into  the  same  number  of  separate  oval 
bag-like  appendages,  situated  horizontally,  the  innei 
membrane  of  which  has  the  structure  of  gills.  Into 
these  openings  the  water  is  drawn  by  the  action  of  cer- 
tain muscles,  and  having  performed  its  office,  is  again 
ejected  by  the  same  orifices. 

425.  Were  it  not  for  this  curious  and  singular  provision, 
the  Lamprey  would  be  unable  to  enjoy  its  usual  habit  of 
adhering  by  the  suction   of  the  mouth  to  a  smooth  stone, 
or  other  solid,  or  grasping  and  sucking  its  food  by  which 
it  lives. 

ATMOSPHERIC    RESPIRATION. 

426.  Having  thus  described  the  respiratory  organs  in 
several  orders  of  inferior  animals,  we  now  come  to  those, 


What  difference  is  there   in  the  respiration   of   the  cartilaginous  and 
bony  fishes  ? 


ATMOSPHERIC    RESPIRATION. 


143 


which,  standing  higher  in  the  scale  of  creation,  respire 
the  atmosphere  in  its  gaseous  form. 

427.  The  physiology  of  this  class  is  no  less  diversified 
than  that  of  aquatic  animals.    Its  members  have  a  greater 
complexity  of  structure,  and  in  general,  much  more  vivaci- 
ty of  action  than  the  class  already  described. 

428.  To  this  division  belong  the  Insects  and  Amphibia, 
as  well  as  the  Mammalia,  including  Man.     In  Insects  the 
air  is  respired  by  means  of  trachea,  which  generally  per- 
vade every  part  of  the  system,  even  to  the  wings.     In  the 
Amphibia  the  air  is  swallowed,  while  in  the  Mammalia  it 
is  admitted  into  pulmonary  cavities,  or  lungs. 

429.  Respiration  in  Insects. — The  external  orifices  of 
the  trachea  in  Insects  are  called  spiracles,  or  stigmati,  as 
already  explained.     These  are  usually  situated  in  rows  on 
each   side  of  the  body.     In  the  larvee  of   many  Insects 
they  are  quite  apparent  to  the  eye.     Fig.  91  shows  these 
organs    in    the    form   of    dots 

along  the  sides  of  the  larvae  of 
the  honey  bee.  These  orifices 
lead  to  trachea  or  air  tubes  situ- 
ated within  the  body  of  the  In- 
sect, and  which  ramify  so  as  to 
distribute  air  to  all  its  parts. 
On  this  account,  these  air  tubes 
have  often  been  mistaken  for 
blood  vessels. 

430.  The  drawing,  Fig.  92,  represents  the  magnified 
form  of  a  trachea  and  its  branches,  as  they  exist  in  certain 

Fig.  92. 


Fig.  91. 


What  is  said  of  the  physiology  of  air-breathing  animals  ?  What  is  the 
diilerence  in  the  respiration  of  insects  and  man  ?  What  are  the  stigmata 
of  insects  ? 


144  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 

Insects.  The  cup-like  appendage  situated  on  the  upper 
and  central  part  of  the  trunk,  is  the  stigmata,  opening 
from  the  atmosphere  to  the  trachea.  There  are,  as  above 
shown,  about  ten  of  these  orifices  on  each  side  of  the  larva 
or  caterpillar  of  most  Insects. 

431.  These  stigmata  are  always  open  and  full  of  air, 
and  if  an  Insect  be  immersed  in  water,  minute  bubbles  of 
air  may  be  seen  escaping  from  each,  being  excluded  by 
the  fluid.     While  under  the  water,  the  trachea  often  pre- 
sent a  silvery  appearance,  from  the  air  they  contain.      If 
all  the   air  is  expelled,  and  the  vessels  are  filled  with 
water,  the  Insect  is  drowned  ;    and  if  the  stigmata  be 
closed  by  oil  or  any  other  substance,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
ingress  of  air,  the  Insect  will  be  suffocated 

432.  In  the  winged  Insects,  every  part  is  furnished  with 
air  tubes,  which  ramify  in  all  directions,  and  which  circu- 
late  air   as  the  arteries  do  blood.     The  nervures,  which 
have  the  appearance  of  veins  on  the  wings  of  Butterflies 
and  other  Insects,  are  a  part  of  the  organs  of  respiration. 


RESPIRATION    IN   REPTILES. 

433.  In  the  vertebrated  terrestrial  animals,  the  organs 
into  which  the  air  is  admitted  for  the  purpose  of  respira- 
tion,   are   called  lungs  :    the    tube   leading   to  which   is 
called  trachea,  or  wind-pipe.     The  trachea  divides  at  the 
upper  part  of  the  chest  into  two  tubes,   leading  to  each 
lung,  and  these  are  called  bronchia.     The  upper  end  of 
the  trachea,  which  lies  before  the  passage  to  the  stomach, 
called   the  esophagus,    is  carefully   guarded   by   a   valve 
called  the  epiglottis,  from  the  intrusion  of  any  substance 
about  to  be  swallowed,  or  passed  into  it,  on  its  way  to 
the  stomach.     The   action  of  swallowing   closes  the  epi- 
glottis very   accurately  over   the  passage   to    the  wind 
pipe,  which  is  again  instantly  opened  in  the  act  of  respi 
ration. 

434.  This  description  applies  to  air-breathing  animals, 
with  back  bones  generally ;  but  when  we  come  to  examine 


What  are  the  lungs?   What  is  the  tube  called  which  leads  to  the  lungs 
What  are  the  bronchia  ?    What  is  the  epiglottis,  and  what  its  use  ? 


RESPIRATION    JN    REPTILES.  145 

the  different  orders  or  tribes,  we  shall  find  a  great  diversity 
in  the  situation,  forms  and  .structures,  of  these  different 
parts.  In  the  reptiles,  as  the  Frog  and  Snake,  the  epiglottis 
is  wanting,  the  food  being  carried  over  the  aperture  of  the 
trachea  by  the  tongue. 

435.  The  lungs  of  reptiles  are  large  sacks  situated  on 
each  side  of  the  chest,  into  which  the  bronchia  lead. 

436.  The  mechanism  by  which  the  air  is  taken  into  the 
lungs  in  these  animals  is  exceedingly  curious,  and  quite 
peculiar  to  this  tribe,  it  having  been  for  a  long  time  a  sub- 
ject of  controversy  among  naturalists,  how  these  creatures 
breathed. 

437.  Respiration  of  the  Frog. — As  an  example  of  the 
manner  in  which  breathing  is  carried  on  among  reptiles, 
consisting  of  the  Chamelion,  Lizards,  Snakes,  and  others, 
we  will  describe  that  of  the  Frog,  a  race  well  known  to 
all  our  readers.     Mr.  Bell,  in  his  anatomy,  has  described 
this  process  at  length ;  but  the  following  extract  is  suffi- 
cient for  this  work. 

438.  On  watching  a  Frog  ever  so  carefully,  when  it  is 
still  and  quiet,  we  can  scarcely  discover  any  signs  of  respi- 
ration, since  it  never  opens  its  mouth  to  receive  the  air, 
and  there  is  no  motion  of  the  sides  to  indicate  that  it 
breathes.     Yet  on  any  sudden  alarm,  we  see  the  animal 
blowing  itself  up,  as  if  by  some  internal  power,  while  at 
the  same  time  its  mouth  remains   entirely  closed.     We 
may  perceive,  however,  that  its  throat  is  in  motion,  as  if 
the  reptile  was  so  careful  of  its  mouthful  of  air,  as  to 
transfer    it   backwards   and  forwards  between   its  mouth 
and    lungs.     But  if  we  direct   our   attention  to  the  nos- 
trils, we  may  observe  in  them  a  twirling  motion  at  each 
movement  of  the  bag  under  the  throat ;  for  it  is  through 
the  nostrils  that  respiration  is  carried  on  in  this  animal, 
there  being  no  other  communication  between  the  lungs 
and  the  air. 

439.  The  jaws  are  never  opened  but  for  eating,  which 
is  only  for  the  instant  that  it  darts  out  its  tongue,  and  as 
quickly  returns  it  with  an  insect.     The  throat  and  sides 
of  the  mouth,  form  a  kind  of  bellows,  to  which  the  nos- 
trils are  the  inlet;   and  it  is  by  the  contraction  of  this 

13 


146  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 

part,  that  the  air  is  swallowed,  and  forced  down  the  trachea 
into  the  lungs. 

440.  The  aperture  leading  from  the  mouth  to  the 
lungs,  is  through  the  middle  of  the  back  part  of  the  tongue. 
Fig.  93  represents  this  odd  aparatus ;  a  the  tongue,  d  the 

Fig.  93. 


orifice  to  the  trachea,  c  the  throat,  and  b  the  nostrils 
The  tongue  is  not  attached  far  back  in  the  throat,  like 
that  of  other  animals,  but  lies  fixed  to  the  lower  jaw,  or 
chin,  so  as  to  increase  its  length  out  of  the  mouth.  -  If 
the  mouth  of  a  frog  be  forcibly  kept  open,  the  creature  is 
soon  strangled,  because  the  aperture  through  the  tongue  is 
not  only  thus  closed,  but  were  it  open,  there  would  be  no 
respiration  without  the  action  of  the  bellows,  which  by 
opening  the  mouth  is  destroyed. 

441.  This  is  the  mode  in  which  most  of  the  reptiles  per- 
form their  respiration,  the  process  being  that  of  swallowing 
the  air,  rather  than  breathing  it  as  other  animals  do. 

RESPIRATION    IN    BIRDS. 

442.  In  Birds  the  respiratory  apparatus  is  quite  different 
in  most  respects,  from  that  of  reptiles.     There  is   also  a 
remarkable  difference  in  the  mode  in  which  the  process  is 
performed. 

443.  In  these  races,  the  air  does  merely  pass  into  the 
lungs,  but  is  drawn  through  them,  into  the  large  air  cells 
which    are  contiguous.     This   is  done   by   elevating  the 

How  does  the  respiration  of  the  Frog  differ  from  that  of  other  animals? 


RESPIRATION   OF   BIRDS. 


147 


chest,  by  a  set  of  muscles  for  this  purpose.  When  the 
chest  is  depressed,  this  air  is  again  expelled  through  the 
same  vessels  by  which  it  was  admitted  ;  so  that  in  these 
Animals,  the  same  portion  of  air  passes  twice  through  the 
lungs.  This  is  a  wonderful  provision,  and  one  in  which 
we  cannot  but  behold  Creative  wisdom  and  design. 

444.  The  habits  of  Birds   require  that  levity  should   be 
combined  with   strength  in   their  confirmation.     Had  the 
lungs  been  constructed  like  those  of  Quadrupeds  and  Man, 
where    the    air  is  merely   taken   in   and  thrown  out,  a 
considerable  addition  of  weight  must  have  been  the  conse- 
quence.    But  by  the  very  peculiar  structure  of  the  whole 
apparatus,  which  allows  the   air   to  be  twice  breathed, 
the  lungs  could  be  reduced  to  a  very  diminutive   size, 
and  still  the   aeration  of  the  blood  be  as  perfect  as   in 
Quadrupeds ;  and  this  is  the  admirable  plan  adopted  in 
these  Animals. 

445.  Lungs  of  the  Ostrich. —  This  mechanism  will  be 

Fig.  94. 


148  VITAL    FUNCTIONS. 

understood  by  the  plan,  Fig.  94,  which  represents  the 
lungs  and  air  cells  of  an  Ostrich.  The  trachea,  t,  is  seen 
to  divide  into  bronchia,  which  pass  to  the  lungs  on  each 
side.  These,  after  entering  the  lungs,  divide  into  numer- 
ous branches,  and  pass  quite  through  their  substance, 
opening  on  the  outside  by  many  apertures,  which  may 
be  seen  at  /,  /,  these  parts  being  the  true  lungs  of  the  bird. 
They  are  small,  and  thin,  forming  the  dark  substance 
always  seen  in  carving  a  fowl,  along  the  back,  and 
between  the  ribs. 

446.  These  apertures  admit  the  air  into  several  large 
air  cells,  c  c  c  c,  which   occupy  a   considerable  proportion 
of  the  interior   bulk.     These    cells  enclose   some  of  the 
principal  viscera,  as  the  liver,  stomach,  and   heart,  and 
extend  down  the   sides   the   whole  length   of  the   body. 
Numerous"  air  cells  also  exist  in  other  parts,  with  which 
these  are  connected  by  little  punctures  seen  at  c  c. 

447.  The  air  vessels  thus  described,  not  only  communi- 
cate with  numerous  others  in  different  parts  of  the  body, 
but  also  with  the  interior  of  the  bones,  which,  especially, 
in  the  Eagle  and  other  Birds  that  are  much  on  the  wing, 
are  left  hollow,  and  without  marrow,  for  this  purpose.     In 
consequence  of  the  large   quantity    of  air  consumed   by 
the     respiration     of    Birds,     the    temperature     of    their 
bodies   is   several  degrees  higher   than  that  of  any  other 
Animal. 

448.  "  The  peculiarities  of  structure  in  the  respiratory 
systems  of  Birds,"  says  Roget,  "  have  probably  a  relation 
to   the   capability  we  see  them  possess,   of  bearing  with 
impunity,  very  quick  and  violent  changes  of  atmospheric 
pressure.     Thus    the  Condor  of  the  Andes  is  often  seen 
to  descend  rapidly  from  a  height  of   above  20,000  feet, 
to  the  edge  of  the  sea,  where  the  air  is  more  than  twice 
the  density  of  that    which  the  Bird  had  been  breathing. 
We  are  as  yet  unable  to  trace  the  connexion  which  pro- 
bably exists  between  the  structure  of  the  lungs,  and  this 
extraordinary  power  of  accommodation  to  such  great  and 
sudden  variations  of  atmospheric  pressure." 


What  is  there  peculiar  in  the  respiration  of  birds  !  How  do  the  lungs 
of  oirds  differ  from  those  of  quadrupeds?  What  is  said  of  the  air  cells 
surrounding  the  lungs  of  birds? 


RESPIRATION    IN    THE    MAMMALIA.  149 

449.  The  Birds  rank  above  all  ihe  Animal  creation  in 
vital  energy,  as  well  as  in  muscular  action.  This  appears 
to  be  in  consequence  of  the  double  effects  of  the  respira- 
tion, on  the  circulating  fluid,  as  it  passes  through  the  lungs. 


RESPIRATION    IN    THE    MAMMALIA. 


450.  But,  notwithstanding  we  see  in  the  Birds  a  won- 
derful adaptation  of  the  respiratory  apparatus  to  the  wants 
and  conveniences  of  that  order,  still  we  shall  find  that  the 
construction  of  the  pulmonary  system  of  Man   and   the 
other  Mammalia,  involve  physiological  advantages  not  to 
be  found  in  any  other  class  of  animals. 

451.  The  points  in  which  this  superiority  exists  will  be 
noticed  in  the  progress  of  the  description  of  the  organs  of 
respiration  in  Man,  to  which  we  now  proceed,  and  which 
may  be  considered  as  the  type  of  the  same  parts  in  all  the 
other  Mammalia. 

452.  Respiration  in  Man. — In  our  own  species,  the 
thorax,  or  chest,  which  contains  the  respiratory  organs,  as 
well  as  all  the  other  vital  parts,  is  entirely  surrounded  by 
a  frame  work  of  bone,  so  that  these  parts  are  defended 
with    great   care   from    external   injury.      These   bones 
consist  of  the  spine,  the  ribs,  and  the  sternum,  or  breast 
bone. 

453.  Trunk  of  the  Human  Skeleton.— The  Trunk  ol 
the  Human  skeleton  is  represented  by  Fig.  95,  of  which 
a  is  the  sternum,  b  b  the  spine,  and  c  c  c  c  the  ribs.    These 
bones,  it  is  well  known,  are  connected  together  in  the 
living  system,  by  muscles  and  ligaments,  and   by  which 
they  are  moved  in  a  slight  degree  in  the  act  of  respira- 
tion. 


In  what  respect  do  the  birds  rank  above  all  other  animals  ?  What  is 
said  of  the  perfection  of  the  pulmonary  system  in  man?  What  are  the 
parts  of  the  human  skeleton  which  enclose  the  organs  of  respiration? 


150  VITAL   FUNCTIONS 


454.  Parts  concerned  in  Respiration. — The  parts  con 
cerned  in  the  respiration  of  Man  may,  therefore,  be  ai- 
ranged  into  three  divisions :  First,  the  bones  which  form 
the  respiratory  cavity ;  second,  the  muscles  by  which 
these  bones  are  moved  ;  and  third,  the  respiratory  organs 
themselves. 

Belonging  to  the  first  division,  there  are  one  sternum, 
twelve  pieces  of  the  spine,  called  the  dorsal  vertebra,  and 
twenty-four  ribs. 

The  second  division  consists  of  the  diaphragm,  and 
several  pairs  of  muscles. 

The  third  division  contains  the  trachea  bronchia,  and 
lungs. 

There  is  no  necessity  of  describing  the  skeleton  of  the 
trunk,  having  already  done  so  for  another  purpose,  under 
Figures  63,  64,  and  65. 

The  muscles  concerned  in  respiration  are  the  dia- 
phragm, and  the  intercostal  muscles,  together  with  several 

What  is  the  principal  organ  concerned  in  respiration  ? 


RESPIRATION    LN    THE    MAMMALIA.  151 

others  gf  less  importance.  The  intercostal,  or  the  muscles 
between  the  ribs,  ar  the  word  signifies,  assist  in  elevating 
the  sternum  ribs,  and  thus  of  enlarging  the  capacity  of  the 
chest  in  the  act  of  inspiration,  or  drawing  in  the  breath. 
But  the  diaphragm  is  by  far  the  most  important  muscular 
agent  in  the  process  of  respiration. 

455.  Situation  of  the  Diaphragm. — This  part  is  situ- 
ated transversely  and  obliquely  across  the  body,  dividing 
the  interior  into  two  parts.  Its  anterior  attachment  is  to 
the  inner  surface  of  the  breast  bone,  thence  running 
down  in  the  direction  of  the  ribs,  it  is  attached  to  the 
vertebra  of  the  loins.  The  heart,  large  blood  vessels,  and 
lungs,  are  thus  situated  above  and  behind  the  diaphragm, 
while  the  stomach  and  liver  are  situated  below  and  before 
it.  It  is  firmly  attached  to  the  pericardium,  a  membrane 
surrounding  the  heart,  and  through  it  pass  the  esophagus 
and  large  blood  vessels. 

The  centre  of  the  diaphragm  is  tendinous,  but  around 
its  whole  circumference,  it  is  composed  of  muscle.  The 
muscular  part  only,  is  that  which  contracts  and  dilates 
during  respiration. 

It  is  chiefly  by  the  alternate  contraction  and  relaxation 
of  this  muscle,  that  the  air  is  drawn  into,  and  expelled 
from  the  lungs. 

The  trachea,  or  wind-pipe,  as  we  have  before  shown, 
leads  from  the  back  part  of  the  throat  to  the  bronchia, 
while  the  latter  is  merely  a  division  of  the  former  into  two 
parts  leading  to  each  lung. 

The  bronchia,  when  they  reach  the  lungs,  divide  into 
numerous  ramifications,  forming  air  tubes  throughout  their 
whole  substance,  so  that  the  structure  of  these  parts  appear 
to  consist  of  little  more  than  fine  air  tubes,  made  of  a  thin 
and  delicate  membrane. 

The  lungs  thus  constructed,  are  two  spongy,  flatish,  coni- 
cal bodies,  situated  within  the  lateral  cavitie%  of  the  chest, 
•which  they  completely  fill. 

What  is  the  situation  of  the  diaphragm  ?  What  part  of  the  diaphragm 
is  muscular,  and  what  part  tendinous?  What  portion  contracts  and 
relaxes  during  respiration?  What  becomes  of  the  bronchia  after  they 
reach  the  lungs  * 


VITAL    FUNCTIONS 


456.  Human  Lungs  and  Heart.  —  Fig.  96,  represents 
the  Lungs,  together  with  the  Heart  and  large  Arteries,  and 

Fig.  96. 


Diaphragm  as  they  are  situated  in  man :  «,  the  Heart ; 
b,  b,  the  Lungs  ;  c,  c,  the  Diaphragm.  The  bases  of  the 
Lungs,  it  will  be  observed,  rest  upon  the  Diaphragm, 
with  which  they  are  always  in  close  contact.  The  Lungs 
are  distinguished  into  parts,  called  lobes,  which  are  par- 
tial divisions  of  their  lower  parts.  The  right  side  of  the 
chest  being  larger  than  .the  left,  because  the  Heart  is 
principally  on  the  left  side,  the  right  Lung  has  three 
lobes,  while  the  left  has  only  two.  The  Lungs  are 
entirely  made  up  of  air  cells  and  blood  vessels,  inter- 
mingling with  each  other  in  the  closest  manner,  the  two 
fluids  being  divided  from  each  other  by  the  thinnest  mem- 
branes. Thus  as  the  blood  passes  through  the  Lungs,  it 
is  largely  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  air  through  this 
membrane. 

457.  Such  is  the  extreme  tenuity  of  these  vessels,  that 
Dr.  Keil  estimated  the  number  of  cells  in  the  Lungs  to  be 
nearly  180  millions,  and  Dr.  Hales,  supposing  each  air- 
cell  at  1-100  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  computed 
that  the  whole  surface  in  both  Lungs  would  be  equal  to 
20,000  square  inches.  It  is  upon  the  surface  that  the 
venous  blood  is  distributed  by  an  equal  infinity  of  vessels, 
and  by  which  means  it  is  aerated,  or  changed  into 
arterial  blood*  which  is  then  immediately  sent  to  reno- 
vate and  vivify  the  whole  system,  as  shown  in  the  de- 

What  are  the  relative  situation  of  the  lungs,  heart,  and  diaphragm  ? 
What  is  the  substance  of  the  lunes  composed  ol  ?  What  amount  of  surface 
is  it  computed  the  air  vessels  of  the  lungs  contain  ? 


CHEMICAL  EFFECTS  OF  RESPIRATION.  153 

scription  of  the  circulation.  What  a  masterly  !  what  a 
wonderful  piece  of  mechanism  this !  A  surface  of  air 
several  hundred  feet  in  extent,  and  a  surface  of  blood  of 
similar  dimensions,  all  within  the  bulk  of  eight  or  ten 
inches  long,  and  five  or  six  in  diameter.  Where  shall  we 
look  for  a  parallel,  even  among  the  effects  of  Infinite 
wisdom  1 

CHEMICAL  EFFECTS  OF  RESPIRATION. 

458.  The  atmosphere,  as  already  stated,  acts  upon  the 
blood  through  the  tissue  of  vessels  in  which  both  fluids 
are  confined.     The  most  obvious  effects  resulting  from  this 
action  is  the  change  of  color  from  the  dark  purple   hue 
which  the  venous  blood  has,  when  it  comes  to  the  lungs, 
to  the  bright  vermillion  which  it  assumes  when  it  returns 
to  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart. 

459.  The  atmospheric  air  which  produces  this  change, 
is  composed  of  twenty  parts  of  oxygen  gas,  and  eighty 
parts  of  nitrogen  gas,  with  a  variable  portion  of  carbonic 
acid  gas.     After  the  action  of  the  air  upon  the  blood,  and 
when  it  is  again  thrown  out  of  the  lungs,  it  is  found  that 
a  portion  of  the  oxygen  which  it  contained,  has  disappear- 
ed, and  that  it  is  replaced,  or  nearly  so,  by  carbonic  acid 
gas.     There  is  also  a  quantity  of  watery  vapor,  always 
emitted  from  the  lungs  at  every  expiration. 

460.  The  quantity  of  oxygen  consumed  in  respiration, 
not  only  depends  on  the  kind  of  animal,  but  also  on  the 
different  conditions  of  the  same  animal.     Thus  animals  of 
the  lower  order,  as  the  mollusca,  require  very  little  oxygen, 
and  will  live  for  a  long  time  in  an  atmosphere  in  which 
birds  and  mammalia  have  perished  for  want  of  it.     The 
same  animal,  also,  when  exercising  vigorously,  consumes, 
and  requires  more  oxygen  than  when  at  rest. 

461.  Now  carbonic  acid  is  composed  of  carbon  and 
oxygen,  and  since  the  oxygen  disappears  in  the  act  of  respi- 
ration, and  there  is  a  like  quantity  of  the  former  gas  found 
in  its  place,  it  is  inferred  that  the  oxygen  has  combined 

What  is  the  most  obvious  effect  of  the  action  of  the  air  on  the  blood  of 
the  lungs  ?  What  is  the  composition  of  air  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  respi- 
ration of  the  composition  of  the  air  respired  ? 


154  VITAL    FUNCTIONS 

with  a  portion  of  carbon  from  the  dark  blood  in  the  lungs 
and  that  while  carbonic  acid  is  thus  formed,  the  blood  be 
comes  of  a  lighter  color  in  consequence  of  parting  with  a 
portion  of  carbon,  and  this  undoubtedly  is  the  true  theory 
of  respiration. 

462.  The  blood  having  thus  parted  with   its   super- 
abundant carbon,  which  escapes  in  the  form  of  carbonic 
acid  gas,  acquires  its  natural  vermillion,  color,  and  is  again 
qualified  to  be  transmitted  to  the  different  parts  of  the  sy.s 
tern,  for  their  nourishment  and  growth. 

463.  It  is  found  by  analysis  that  the  venous  blood  con- 
tains a  greater   proportion  of    carbon   than  the  arterial 
blood,  and  also  a  greater  proportion  than  the  animal  solids 
or  fluids.     Now  the  elements  of  bloojl  are  oxygen,  hydro- 
gen, and  nitrogen,  and  it  is  from  the  blood  that  all  the 
other   parts  are   formed.     Hence    in    the    formation    or 
growth    of.  other   parts,  if  there  is  employed    a   greater 
proportion  of  the  other  elements,  and  a  less  proportion  of 
the  carbon  than  the  blood  contains,  the  effect  is  an  ac- 
cumulation of  the  latter  in  the  blood.     And  as  an  excess 
of  carbon  appears  to  be  noxious  to  the  animal  economy, 
this  excess  is  removed  by  combining  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  atmosphere  as   the  blood  circulates  through   the 
lungs. 

464.  Respiration  analogous  to  Combustion. — The  pro- 
cess of  respiration  has  long  since  been  considered   analo- 
gous to  that  of  combustion,  which   is  certainly  the  case. 
In   ordinary  combustion,  the   carbon  of  the  combustible 
body   unites   with  the   oxygen   of  the    atmosphere,  and 
while  heat  is  evolved,  carbonic  acid  escapes,  being   the 
joint  product  of  the  carbon  and  oxygen.     Dr.  Roget  has 
carried  this  idea  so  far  as  to  turn  the  respiratory  appa- 
ratus into   a  regular  furnace,  with  bellows,  &c.     "  The 
food,"  says  he,  "  supplies  the  fuel,  which  is  prepared  for 
use  by  the  digestive  organs,  and    conveyed  by  the  pul- 
monary arteries,  to  the  place  where  it  is  to  undergo  com- 
bustion :   the  diaphragm  is  the  bellows  which  feeds  the 


What  is  said  of  the  quantity  of  oxygen,  consumed  by  animals?  What  is 
the  composition  of  carbonic  acid?  What  are  the  elements  of  blood?  How 
do  you  account  for  the  accumulation  of  carbon  in  the  blood  ? 


CHEMICAL    EFFECTS   OF    RESPIRATION.  155 

furnace  with  air ;  and  the  trachea  is  the  chimney,  through 
which  the  carbonic  acid  which  is  the  product  of  the  com- 
bustion escapes.'* 

465.  Animal  Heat. — That  animal  heat  depends  on  the 
process  of  respiration,  and  that  the  temperature,  whether 
higher  or  lower,  depends  at  least  in  some  degree,  on  the 
quantity  of  oxygen  consumed,  there  is  good  reason  to 
suppose.  The  uniform  relation  which  may  be  observed 
between  the.  temperature  of  animals,  and  the  energy  of 
the  respiratory  functions,  affords  a  very  strong  presump- 
tion that  this  is  the  case. 

468.  It  is  true  that  many  objections  have  been  brought 
against  this  theory,  and  yet  no  other  hypothesis  has 
been  offered  which  can  be  supported  by  so  many  con- 
current facts  as  this.  We  find  as  a  universal  truth,  that 
all  hot-blooded  animals  consume,  or  vitiate,  large  quan- 
tities of  air  by  respiration,  and  that  the  whole  mass  of 
blood  in  these  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere, 
in  a  gaseous  form.  Whereas  the  cold-blooded  tribe  de- 
pend for  respiration  on  the  minute  portions  of  air  the 
water  contains,  or  are  so  constructed  that  only  half  of 
their  blood  is  exposed  to  atmospheric  influence.  These 
circumstances  have  already  been  noticed  and  explained 
in  the  account  we  have  given  of  comparative  circulation 
and  respiration. 

467.  Warm  Blood  in  Whales. — We  find  that  when  ani- 
mals have  all  the  habits  of  fish,  and  spend  their  lives 
among  the  ice  of  the  northern  oceans,  they  still  have  warm 
blood,  if  their  organs  of  respiration  are  so  constructed 
as  to  expose  the  whole  mass  of  circulating  fluid  to  the 
influence  of  pure  Atmospheric  air.  Thus  the  whales, 
and  dolphins  have  the  breathing  apparatus  of  the  mam- 
malia, to  which  class  of  animals  they  belong,  and  like 
all  the  other  members  of  this  class  have  hearts  with  two 
ventricles,  and  a  double  system  of  circulation;  and 
although  they  are  constantly  exposed  to  the  temperature 
of  the  sea,  that  of  their  systems  is  similar  to  the  other 

In  what  respects  are  the  effects  of  respiration  similar  to  those  of  ordi 
nary  combustion  ?  What  reason  is  there  to  believe  that  animal  temper 
ature  depends  on  the  quantity  of  air  used  in  respiration. 


156  SENSORIAL   FUNCTIONS. 

members  of  the  mammalia  tribes.  The  porpoise  is  also 
another  of  this  class.  These  animals,  are  obliged  of 
course,  to  come  up  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  the  action 
called  spouting  being  merely  the  expiration  of  the  air  from 
the  lungs,  preparatory  to  the  inspiration  of  another  por- 
tion, and  by  which  a  quantity  of  water  is  thrown  above 
the  surface. 


PART  V. 


SENSORIAL  FUNCTIONS. 


468.  THE  Sensoricd  Functions  are  those  which  belong 
to    the   brain,  as  the  general  source    of  sensation    and 
perception.     The  systems  we  have  heretofore  been  occu- 
pied in  describing,  consisting  of  the  mechanical  and   ani- 
mal    functions,  are   only  the   foundations    of  the   higher 
order  ( f  faculties  which   animals,  and  especially  man  are 
destined  to  exercise. 

469,  Brain  and  Nerves. — The  functions  of  sensation, 
perception,  and  voluntary  motion,  require  the   presence  of 
an  organized  animal  substance,  which  is  endowed   with 
very   remarkable    properties,    and   which   is    known   to 

What  are  seasonal  functions  ?    What  is  the  foundation  of  the  sensorial 
functions  ? 


SENSOK1AL    FUNCTION'S.  157 

physiologists  under  the  name  of  the  medullary  substance. 
This  substance  composes  the  greatest  proportion  of  the 
brain,  spinal  marrow,  and  nerves.  These,  together, 
compose  that  set  of  organs  generally  known  under  the 
name  of  the  nervous  system. 

470.  The  brain  is  the  primary  and  essential  organ  of 
sensation,  the  nerves  and  spinal  marrow  being  the  instru- 
ments, or  media,  by  which  external  impressions  are  con- 
veyed to  this  source  of  perception. 

471.  The  nerVes   are   bundles  of    white  filiments,   or 
threads,  which,  like  the  blood-vessels,    are  divided  into 
branches,  and  finally  into  very  minute  fibres,  which,  in  some 
instances,  are  distributed  to  every  part  of  the  system  ;  there 
being,  for  instance,  not  a  portion  of  the  skin  which  can  be 
touched  by  the  finest  point,  \vhere  there  is  not  a  nerve. 

472.  The  nerves  thus  pervading  the  whole  system,  are 
those  of  touch  ;  and  they  are  universally  present  in  all  or- 
ders of  animals,  however  low  in  the  scale  of  existence. 
In  the  mollusca  and  polypi,  these  appear  to  be  the  only 
organs  of  sensation,  since  no  external  cause  applicable  to 
the  other  senses  have  the  least  effect  upon  them.     They 
close  their  shells,  or  recede,  when  touched,  but  often  ex- 
hibit no  other  signs  of  life. 

473.  As  we  rise  higher  in  the  scale  of  animal  existence, 
we   find  that  the  different  orders  are  furnished  with   a 
greater  number  of  these  instruments  of  sensation.     Thus 
some  races  have  not  only  the  nerves  of  touch,  but  those 
of  sight,  those  of  hearing  and  smell  being  denied  them. 
In  the  next  step  of  organization,  we  may  find  all  these, 
with  perhaps  the  absence  of  taste ;  and  it  is  only  when  we 
examine  the  highest  orders  of  animals,  that  we  find  the 
senses  of  touch,  taste,   smell,  seeing,    and   hearing,  all 
combined  in  the  same  animal. 

474.  The  appearance  of  the   nerves    are   everywhere 
similar,  those  of  the  touch,  or  taste,  or  smell,  not  being 
distinguishable  from  each  other,  except  by  tracing  them 
to  the  organs  of  perception  to  which  they  refer. 


What  composes  the  nervous  system  ?  What  part  is  the  origin  of-source 
of  sensation?  How  are  the  sensations  conveyed  to  the  brain?  How  do 
the  nerves  appear'  What  is  said  of  the  nerves  of  touch? 


158 


SENSOR1AL    FUNCTIONS. 


475.  Nervous  Ganglia.  —  The  nerves  as  they  pass 
along  the  different  members  often  form  ganglia,  or  knots, 
which  are  small  oval  masses  of  nervous  substance,  con- 
sisting of  the  ordinary  filaments  interlacing  each  other 
A  ganglion  is  represented  at  g,  Fig.  97,  through  which 


Fig.  37. 


Fig.  98. 

the  nerve  n  passes,  consisting  at  its  origin  of  a  number 
of  separate  filaments,  f,  and  again  sub-dividing  into  many 
branches,  b. 

476.  A  plexus,  or  net- work  of  nerves,  is  shown  by  Fig. 
98.     This  is  formed  of  four  trunks,  seen  distinct  at  t,  t,  but 
which  variously   interlace   each  other,  at  the  same  time 
dividing  into  branches,  before  they  proceed  to  their  re- 
spective destinations. 

477.  The  ganglia   appear   to   be  a  kind   of  secondary 
sensoria,   or   rather   perhaps   reservoirs    of    the     nervous 
power,  and  in  which  nervous  filaments  from  the  neighbor- 
ing parts  concentrate,  or  from  which  these  filaments  pro- 
ceed.    They  are   perhaps  points,  where  nerves  conveying 
different  kinds  of  intelligence  to  the  brain  meet,  and  by 
mingling  their  influence  convey  compound  sensations  to 
the  mind. 

478.  But  the  subject  of  sensation  and  perception,  as 
connected  with  the  powers  of  reasoning  and  reflection,  do 
not  come  within  the  scope  of  this  volume,  and  we  shall 


What  are  ganglia2    What  is  a  plexus  of  nerves?     What  are  the  uses 
of  ganglia  * 


VISION.  159 

therefore  proceed  to  describe  the  organs  of  sensation  as 
they  exist  in  the  human  species. 

• 

VISION. 

479.  "  To  those,"  says  Dr.  Roget,  "  who  study  nature 
with  a  view  to  the  discovery  of  final  causes,  no  subject  can 
be  more-  interesting  or  instructive,  than  the  physiology  of 
vision,  the  most  refined  and  admirable  of  all  our  senses." 

430.  In  a  great  proportion  of  the  complicated  works  of 
creation,  although  we  may  be  able  to  see  the  most  admi- 
rable mechanism,  we  are  unable  to  trace  its  operations, 
step  by  step,  and  point  out  the  ultimate  end  and  object. 
"  But  in  the  subject  which  now  claims  our  attention," 
continues  Dr.  Roget,  "  we  have  been  permitted  to  trace, 
for  a  considerable  extent,  the  continuity  of  design,  and 
the  lengthened  series  of  means  employed  for  carrying 
that  design  into  execution  ;  and  the  view  which  is  thus 
unfolded  of  the  magnificent  scheme  of  the  creation,  is 
calculated  to  give  us  the  most  sublime  idea  of  THE  WISDOM, 

THE  POWER,  AND  THE  BENEVOLENCE  OF  GOD. 

481.  The  sense  of  vision  is  intended  to  convey  to  us  a 
knowledge  of  the  presence,  situation,  and  color  of  exter- 
nal   and  distant  objects   by  means  of  the   light    which 
those  objects  are  continually  sending  off,  either  sponta- 
neously, or  by  reflection    from  other  bodies.     It  would 
appear,  that  there  is  only  one  part  of  the  nervous  system, 
so  peculiarly  organized  as  to  be  capable  of  being  affect- 
ed by  luminous  rays,  and  conveying  to  the  mind  the  sen- 
sation of  light;    and   this  part  is  the  retina,  so  named 
from  the  thin  and  delicate  membranous  net-work,  on  which 
the  pulpy  extremities  of  the  optic  nerve  are  expanded,  es- 
tablishing an  immediate  communication  between  that  part 
and  the  brain. 

STRUCTURE    OF   THE   HUMAN   EYE. 

482.  In  treating  of  vision,  it  has  been  usual,  first  to  trace 
the  optical  principles  so  far  as  the  eye  is  concerned,  and 
then  to  apply  these  principles  to  the  organ  itself.     But  it 
is  difficult  to  make  these  principles  understood  without 


160  SENSOR1AL    FUNCTIONS. 

the  use  of  many  diagrams,  and  lengthy  explanations ; 
and  after  all,  we  are  all  obliged  to  refer  to  the  eye  itself, 
the  most  perfect  of  optical  instruments,  in  order  to  illus- 
trate these  preparatory  steps.  We  shall  therefore  begin 
with  the  structure  of  the  eye,  as  the  basis  of  visual 
physiology,  and  after  which  such  explanations  will  follow, 
as  will,  it  is  hoped,  make  the  subject  in  question  both  plain 
and  interesting. 

483.  The  spherical  form   of  the  eye  is  preserved  by 
firm  membranes  of  various  thicknesses,  called  the  coats  of 
the  eye.     The  transparent  media  which  these  coats  enclose 
and  which  refract  the  light  so  as  to  form  a  picture  on 
the  retina,  are  called  the  humors  of  the  eye.     There  are 
three  principal   coats  or  membranes,  called  the  scleroti- 
ca,  the  cornea,  and  the  choroid,  beside  which,  there  is 
the  retina,  which  covers  the  back  part  of  the  eye.     The 
three  humors  are  called  the  aqueous,  the  vitreous,  and 
crystalline;  the  latter  being  a  firm  body,  is  usually  called 
the  lens. 

484.  Horizontal  Section  of  the  Human  Eye. — Fig.  99 
represents  a  horizontal  section  of  the  right  human  eye. 

Fig.  96. 


How  many  coats  has  the  eye,  and  which  are  their  names  ?    How  many 
humors  has  the  eye  and  what  are  their  names  ? 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HUMAN  EYE.  161 

The  sclerotic  coat,  s,  is  that  which  surrounds  all  the 
others,  being  the  exterior  coat  of  the  eye.  This  is  a  firm, 
dense  membrane,  and  gives  the  eye-ball  its  chief  mechani- 
cal support.  The  sclerotica  does  not  cover  the  front  of 
the  eye-ball,  that  portion  being  covered  with  the  cornea, 
c,  which  forms  the  most  prominent  part  of  the  organ. 
The  sclerotica  coat  forms  what  is  usually  called  the  white 
of  the  eye,  while  the  cornea  covers  the  transparent 
iront,  through  which  vision  is  performed.  The  sclerot- 
ica is  lined  on  the  inside  by  the  choroid  coat,  x,  which 
is  chiefly  made  up  of  a  tissue  of  fine  blood-vessels,  giving 
nourishment  to  the  different  parts  of  the  eye.  The  retina, 
r,  is  an  exceedingly  thin  and  delicate  expansion  of  the 
optic  nerve,  o,  situated  within  the  choroid  coat.  This  is 
the  immediate  organ  of  vision. 

485.  Of  the  three  humors,  the  vitreous,  v,  occupies  more 
than  three  parts  of  the  whole  globe  of  the  eye.     It  con- 
sists of  a  transparent  jelly,  which  has  somewhat  of  a 
glassy  appearance,  and  hence  its  name  vitreous,  or  glassy. 
The  crystalline  humor,  has  the  shape  of  a  double-convex 
lens,  and  occupies   the  front  part  of  the  eye,  being  situ- 
ated between  the   aqueous    and   vitreous  humors.      The 
aqueous   humor,  a,  is  a  transparent,  watery  fluid,  which 
occupies  the  most  prominent  portion  of  the  organ,  imme- 
diately within  the  cornea.     In  this  humor  is  situated  the 
iris,  i,  a   thin,  circular   membrane,  which  is  of  various 
colors  in  different  persons,  being  black,  in  the  black,  and 
blue,  in  the   blue    eyed.     On  this    account,  this   part  is 
called  iris,   which  means  rainbow.      Through   the   iris, 
tl.ere  is  a  central  perforation,  called  the  pupil,  p,  through 
which  the  light   or   the   images   of  objects   pass   to  the 
retina.     The  iris  is   fixed  to  the  choroid  coat  by  a  white 
elastic  ring,  called  the  ciliary  ligament,  g.     The  interior 
surface  of  the  iris  is  lined  with  a  dark  brown  pigment, 
called  the  uvea. 

486.  Structure   of  the  Iris. — The  structure  of  the  iris 
is  very   peculiar,  being   composed  of  two   layers  of  con- 

What  is  the  situation  of  the  sclerotic  coat  ?  What  is  the  choroid  coat  ? 
What  is  the  situation  of  the  cornea  ?  Where  is  the  vitreous  humor  situ- 
ated? What  is  the  shape  and  situation  of  the  crvstalline  lens  ?  What 
is  the  iris  *  What  forms  the  pupil  of  the  eve ? 

14* 


162  SKNSORIAL  FUNCTIONS. 

tractible  fibres,  Fig.  100.     One  of  these  lay-     FiS-  10°- 
ers   form   concentric   circles,  the  other  being 
disposed  in  the  form  of  radii  reaching  from 
the  pupil  to  the  circumference. 

487.  The   delicate  fibres  of  which   these 
layers  are  composed,  perform  the  part  of  mus- 
cles in  varying  the  size  of  the  pupil.     When 
those  forming  concentric  circles  act,  the  pupil 

is  diminished  ;  when  those  forming  radii  contract,  the 
margin  of  the  pupil  is  brought  nearer  the  circumference, 
and  of  course  the  aperture  is  enlarged. 

488.  No  piece  of  mechanism  can  excel  this  in  simpli- 
city, beauty,  and  perfection.     By  its  contractions  and  dila- 
tions, the  quantity  of  light  admitted  into  the  eye  is  reg- 
ulated.     When   its  intensity  wonld   be  injurious   to  the 
sensibility  of  the  retina,  then   the  circular  muscles  act 
and  close  the    aperture,  sometimes    almost   to   a   point ; 
while,  if  the  quantity  of  light  flowing  from  objects  be  too 
small,   as  during  the  evening,  or  on  going  into  a  dark 
room,   the  radiating   fibres    contract,    and     opening   the 
aperture,  admit  as  large   a  quantity   of  light  as   possible. 
We  shall  see  hereafter,  also,  that  the  contraction  of  the 
pupil  serves  to   exclude  such    rays  as   would  otherwise 
fall  upon  parts   of  the  crystalline  lens   which  are  unfitted 
to  bring  them  to  a  focus,  and  in  which  case  vision  would 
be  confused  and  imperfect 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF    VISION 

489.  Having  thus  described  the  mechanism  of  the  eye, 
we  will  next  explain  the  optical  principles  involved  in  the 
visual  function. 

490.  The  passage  of  light  through  the  air,  or  through 
any  other  medium  of  equal  density  through  at,  is  always 
in  straight  lines.     But  when   a  ray  of  lig1     passes  into, 
or  out  of,   a  medium  of  a  different  density,  it  is  bent,  or 

What  is  the  structure  of  the  iris  ?  What  are  the  different  uses  of  the 
two  coats  ?  When  a  ray  of  light  passes  obliquely  into,  or  out  of  a  rarer, 
or  a  denser  medium,  how  is  the  ray  effected  ?  In  what  direction  is  the 
refraction  when  it  passes  from  a  rarer  into  a  denser  medium  ? 


PHYSIOLOGY   OF    VISION.  163 

refracted  out  of  a  straight  line,  unless  it  strikes  the  new 
medium  in  a  perpendicular  direction.  Air,  water,  glass, 
or  any  other  substance  through  which  light  passes,  is 
called  a  medium. 

491.  If  the  ray  passes  obliquely,  from  a  rarer  into  a 
denser  medium,  as  from  air  into  water,  or  from  water  into 
glass,  it  is  refracted  toward  a  perpendicular  line  drawn 
from  the  surface  of  the  medium.    But  when  the  ray  passes 
out  of  a  denser  into  a  rarer  medium,  the  refraction  is  from 
the  same  perpendicular. 

492.  Thus  the  ray  e,  Fig.  101,  striking  obliquely  on  the 
surface  of  a  denser  medium,  at  the  point  s,  instead  of  pur- 
Fig.  101. 


suing  its  original  course  along  the  line  s,  o,  is  refracted 
into  the  direction  s,  t,  which  is  a  line  situated  between  s,  o, 
and  s,  p  ;  this  latter  line  being  drawn  perpendicular  to 
the  surface  of  the  medium,  at  which  the  ray  enters.  When 
the  ray  arrives  at  t,  it  passes  from  a  denser  into  a  rarer 
medium,  and  is  refracted  in  the  contrary  direction  ;  that  is, 
it  inclines  toward  the  perpendicular  line  t,  i,  drawn  from 
t,  within  the  denser  medium,  and  describes  the  new  course 
t,  u,  instead  of  t,  v. 

493.  In  all  cases  of  refraction,  the  amount  corresponds 
to  the  degree  of  obliquity  of  the  ray  to  the  surface  which 
refracts  it ;  while  that  ray  which  passes  perpendicularly 
from  one  medium  to  another,  no  matter  how  different  their 
densities,  is  not  refracted  at  all,  but  pursues  a  straight  course, 
as  though  the  media  were  of  one  and  the  same  density. 

494.  In  the  application  of  these  principles  to  the  form 
of  a  dense  medium,  which  shall  bring  the  rays  of  light 


What  is  the  direction  when  it  passes  into  a  rarer  medium  ?    What  does 
the  amount  of  refraction  correspond  with  ? 


164  SENSORLAL    FUNCTIONS. 

passing  through  it,  from  the  air,  to  a  point,  or  focus,  it  is 
plain  that  two  sections  of  a  solid  transparent  sphere,  with 
their  plane  faces  applied  to  each  other,  is  one  of  the  forms 
which  is  indicated.  This  form,  made  of  solid  glass,  is 
called  a  double-convex  lens,  and  which  corresponds  very 
nearly  to  the  shape  of  the  crystalline  lens  in  the  human 
eye. 

495.  The  amount  of  refraction  being  in  proportion  tc 
the  obliquity  of  the  refracting  surface,  if  the  rays  of  light 
proceed  in  parallel  lines,  then  the  refractive  power  will  be 
greatest  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the  central  ray,  and 
thus  all  will  be  concentrated  at  the  same  point. 

496.  It  will  be  observed  on  inspecting  the  lens,  a.  Fig 
102,   and  comparing  its  form  with  the  law  of  refraction 

Fig.  102. 


above  stated,  that  both  sides  of  a  sphere  conspire  to  bring 
parallel  rays  of  light  to  a  focus  ;  the  first  side  by  turning 
them  toward,  and  the  other  from  a  perpendicular  raised 
from  their  respective  surfaces  of  refraction.  After  the 
rays  have  been  made  to  converge  to  a  focus,  e,  they  cross 
each  other,  and  again  diverge  from  that  point,  as  shown 
by  the  figure. 

497.  It  will  be  seen  in  the  sequel,  that  the  lens  of  the 
eye  operates  precisely  on  the  rays  of  light,  like  the  convex 
lens- just  described,  only  that  the  former  is  a  more  per- 
fect instrument  than  any  which  can  be  constructed  by 
the  hand  of  man.  But  before  we  proceed  to  describe 
the  manner  in  which  vision  is  performed,  we  will  show 
by  a  very  simple  experiment,  in  what  manner  the  ima- 


What  is  the  form  of  a  double-convex  lens  ?  In  parallel  rays  what  part 
of  a  double-convex  lens  has  the  greatest  refractive  power  ?  Do  both  sides 
of  the  lens  conspire  to  form  the  focus,  or  not  ? 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF    VISION. 


165 


ges  of  external  objects  may  be  produced  in  a  darkened 
room,  as  an  illustration  of  the  manner  in  which  the  same 
effect  is  produced  in  the  eye. 

498.  Let  a  room  be  darkened  so  as  to  exclude  all  the 
light  in  every  direction,  except  through  a  small  aperture 
in  a  window-shutter.     The  consequence  will  be,  that  the 
images  of  external   objects,   as   trees,  houses,  and  men, 
will  be  seen  painted  in  the  inverted  position,  on  the  oppo- 
site wall,  or  on  a  screen  of  white  paper  held  before  the 
aperture. 

499.  Cause  of  the  Inverted  Image. — The  reason  why 
these  images  are  inverted,  is,  that  the  rays  of  light  pro- 
ceeding from  the  extremities  of  the  objects  must  converge 
in  order  to  pass  through  the  small  aperture,  and  conse- 
quently they  cross  each  other  at  that  point,  so  that  the 
lowest  portion  of  the  object  is  the  highest  part  of  the 
picture.     All  this  will  be  readily  understood  by  a  bare 
inspection   of  Fig.    103,  which   represents   a  monument 

Fig.  103. 


with  the  course  of  the  rays  from  its  extremities,  crossing 
each  other  at  the  aperture,  and  a  picture  of  the  same 
inverted  on  the  inside  of  the  room. 

500.  This  little  experiment,  which  almost  any  one  can 
try,  forms  a  faint  camera-obscura.  The  picture,  however, 
becomes  brighter  by  enlarging  the  aperture,  but  at  the 


How  may  a  simple  camera-obscura  be  formed?  Why  is  the  picture 
onghter  when  the  rays  pass  through  a  small  aperture  ?  Why  is  the  image 
rendered  indistinct  when  the  aperture  is  enlarged  ? 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  VISION.  167 

the  eye  the  cause  of  this  imperfection  is  avoided,  and  this, 
too,  without  the  least  inconvenience  to  ourselves.  Since 
no  one  in  health,  has  ever  yet  complained  of  the  slightest 
difficulty  in  making  the  highest  parts  of  objects  appear 
at  the  greatest  distance  from  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
whether  he  knew  that  he  saw  them  in  another  position 
or  not. 

505.  Now  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  our 
Creator,  all  things  considered,  has  constructed   us  on  the 
wisest  and   best  plan,  and  therefore,  that  he  chose  so  to 
endow  us,  whether  by  a  peculiar  faculty  or  not,  as  to  see 
things  as  they  exist,  though  they  are  inverted  in  the  eye, 
rather  than  to  correct  this  inversion  by  an  additional  lens. 
This  seems  to  be  the  only  explanation  which  it  is  neces- 
sary to  give  this  subject,  for  although  physiologists  have 
puzzled  themselves  to  show  how  it  is  that  we  see  objects 
as  we  do,  when  ail  agree  that  the  structure  of  the  eye  in- 
verts them  ;  still,  we  can  discern  no  more  difficulty  in  this 
phenomenon  than  we  do  in  the  fact  that  an  engraver  re- 
verses all  his  lines,  and  that  a  printer  reads  his  type  writh 
the  same  facility  that  he  does  a  printed  page ;  both  being 
matters  of  habit  and  experience. 

506.  Minuteness  of  the  Image  on  the  Retina. — It  would 
be  a  curious  and  not  uninstructive  subject,  as  displaying 
in  a  very  striking  manner,  the  wisdom  and  power  of  God, 
in  the  mechanism  of  his  creatures,  to  estimate  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  images  of  different  objects  at  various  distan- 
ces on  the  retina,  if  indeed  this  could  be  done  with  any 
accuracy. 

507.  The  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve  which  forms 
the  seat  of  vision,  is  only  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter, 
and  yet,  on  this  space  is  painted  with   the  most  perfect 
accuracy,  the  image  of  every  object  which  the   eye  be- 
holds.    Now  the  eye  in  an  elevated  situation  may  look  on 
the  whole  of  a   landscape,  to  the  distance  of  fifty  miles ; 
and,  without  perceptibly  moving  the  visual  organs,  include 
a  lateral  view  of  probably  twenty-five  miles  ;  and  yet  the 


How  might  the  inversion  of  the  picture  on  the  retina  have  been  correct- 
ed ?    Why  do  we  see  things  perpendicularly  ? 


166  SENSORIAL   FUNCTIONS. 

same  time  is  rendered  more  indistinct,  because  then  the 
rays  interfere,  and  mingle  with  each  other 

501.  The  only  method  by  which  distinctness  of  the  image 
and  increased  illumination  can  be  obtained,  is  by  collect- 
ing into  one  point  a  great  number  of  rays,  proceeding 
from  the  corresponding  points  of  the  object  to  be  repre- 
sented.     This  intention   is   answered   by   the   use    of  a 
short  tube  containing  a  double-convex  lens,  such  as  is 
represented  by  Fig.  101,  mserted  in  the  aperture.     By  this 
instrument,  the  rays  are  collected  by  refraction,  and  con- 
centrated so  as  to  present  a  perfectly-defined,  and  highly 
illuminated  picture. 

502.  Now  these  illustrations  and  principles  are  exactly 
those  which    apply  to  the   mechanism,  and  use   of  the 
human  eye;  which,  in  all  respects,  is  a  camera-obscura 
of  the  most  perfect  workmanship.     The  vitreous  humor 
is  the   space   occupied   by   the   darkened  chamber ;   the 
pupil  is  the  aperture  through  which  the  light  is  admitted ; 
the  crystalline  humor  is  the  double-convex  lens,  by  which 
the  rays  of  light  are  collected  and  concentrated ;  and  the 
retina  is  the  screen  on  which  the  picture  is  painted,  in  an 
inverted  position,  by  the  crossing  of  the  rays. 

503.  If  the  eye  of  an  animal  be  prepared  by  cutting 
away  the  sclerotic  coat,  and  optic  nerve  on  the  back  side, 
so  as  to  make  this  part  thin  and  transparent,  objects  seen 
through  it  appear  in  the  form  of  an  inverted  picture  on  the 
retina. 

504.  This  fact,  together  with  the  known  effect  of  the 
convex  lens  to  invert  the  images  of  objects,  is  sufficient  to 
prove,  beyond   all  doubt,  that  the  image  is  inverted  on 
the  retina.     This  might,  perhaps,  at  first  thought,  be  con- 
sidered as  an  imperfection  in  the  eye,  but  we  find  that 
nature  always  attains  her  objects  by  the  most  direct  and 
simple  means.     Another  lens  placed  in  the  focus  of  the 
crystalline  would  have  corrected  this  inversion;    and  we 
find  that  finite  mechanics  resort  to  this  method   in  the 
construction  of  terrestrial  telescopes ;   that  is,  {Jiey  add 
one  more  glass  on  purpose  to  correct   the   inversion  of 
objects.     But  it  is  well  known  that  this  additional  glass 
always   proves    an   imperfection   in    the    instrument    on 
other   accounts,   since    every   glass,   however    perfect    it 
may  appear,  still  intercepts  a  portion  of  the  light.     In 


168 


SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 


whole  of  this  extent  must  be  pictured  on  the  diameter  of 
half  an  inch  at  the  same  instant,  otherwise  it  could  riot  be 
seen  at  the  same  view. 

508.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Dick,  in  his  «  Christian  Philosopher," 
a  work  which  should  be  read  by  all  mankind,  has  calcu- 
lated that  a  portion  of  the  castle  of  Edinburgh,  equal  to 
fi\  e  hundred  feet  long  and  ninety  in  height,  occupies  on  the 
retina  only  the  twelve  hundred  thousandth  part  of  an  inch, 
when  seen  at  a  certain  distance,  and  yet  every  part  was 
distinctly  visible.  What  then  might  be  the  dimensions 
of  the  picture  of  a  fixed  star  on  the  same  organ  ? 

509.  Dr.  Roget,  in  his  "  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physi- 
ology," speaking  of  this  organ,  says  :  "  Few  spectacles  are 
more  calculated  to  raise  our  admiration  than  this  delicate 
picture,  which  nature  has,  with  such  exquisite  art,  and 
with  the  finest  touches  of  her  pencil,  spread  over  the 
smooth  canvass  of  this  subtle  nerve ;  a  picture,  which, 
though  scarcely  occupying  the  space  of  half  an  inch  in 
diameter,  contains  the  delineation  of  a  boundless  scene  of 
earth  and  sky,  full  of  all  kinds  of  objects,  some  at  rest,  and 
others  in  motion,  yet  all  accurately  represented,  as  to  their 
forms,  colors,  and  positions,  and  followed  in  all  their 
changes,  without  the  least  interference,  irregularity,  or 
confusion.  Every  one  of  those  countless  and  stupendous 
orbs  of  fire,  whose  light,  after  travelling  immeasurable  re- 
gions of  space,  at  length  reaches  our  eye,  is  collected  on 
its  narrow  curtain,  into  a  luminous  focus  of  inconceivable 
minuteness ;  and  yet  this  almost  infinitesimal  point  shall 
be  sufficient  to  convey  to  the  mind,  through  the  medium 
of  the  optic  nerve  and  brain,  a  knowledge  of  the  existence 
and  position  of  a  far-distant  luminary,  from  which  that 
light  has  emanated.  How  infinitely  surpassing  all  the 
limits  of  our  conception  must  be  the  intelligence  and  pow- 
er of  that  Being  who  planned  and  executed  an  instrument 
comprising  within  such  limited  dimensions,  such  vast  pow- 
ers as  the  eye,  of  which  the  perceptions  comprehend  alike 
the  nearest  and  most  distant  objects,  and  take  cognizance 
at  once  of  the  most  minute  portions  of  matter,  and  of 
bodies  of  the  largest  magnitude." — Bridgewater  Treatise, 
vol.  ii.,  p.  476. 


MOTIONS  OF  THE  EYE.  169 

MOTIONS  OF  THE  EYE. 

510.  The  socket  of  the  eye  is  considerably  larger  than 
the  ball  itself,  the  space  between  them  being  lined  with 
a  soft   cellular  substance,  in  which  the  eye  easily  turns  in 
all  directions.     At  the  anterior  part  of  the  cavity  are  in- 
serted the  muscles  which  give  motion  to  the  ball. 

5 11.  A  view  of  these  muscles  with  their  attachments 
to  the  different  parts  of  the  ball,  but  separated  from  the 
other  parts,  is  given  in  Fig.  103.     Four  of  these  proceed 

Fig.  103 


in  a  straight  course  from  the  bottom  of  the  orbit,  arising 
from  the  margin  of  the  aperture  through  which  the  optic 
nerve  passes,  and  are  inserted  by  a  broad  tendinous  ex- 
pansion in  the  forepart  of  the  sclerotic  coat.  Three  of 
these  are  marked  a,  6,  c,  in  the  figure  ;  the  edge  of  the 
fourth  being  seen  above  and  behind  b.  These  straight 
muscles,  as  they  are  called,  surround  the  optic  nerve  and 
the  eye-ball,  forming  four  longitudinal  bands ;  one,  a,  being 
situated  above,  for  the  purpose  of  turning  the  eye  upward ; 
a  second,  c,  situated  below,  for  turning  the  ball  downward ; 
the  two  others,  6,  and  its  antagonist,  perform  the  lateral 
motions  from  right  to  left. 

512.  Beside  these  straight  muscles,  the  figure  shows  two 
others,  s  and  i,  termed,  from  the  manner  in  which  they 
act,  oblique  muscles.  When  these  act  together,  they  draw 


What  are  the  directions  in  which  the  straight  muscles  move  the  eye 
ball  ?    What  motion  do  the  oblique  muscles  give  the  eye-ball  ? 

15 


170  SENSORIAL   FUNCTIONS. 

the  eye  forward,  serving  as  antagonists  to  the  straignt 
muscles.  The  upper  oblique  muscle,  s,  is  very  remarka- 
ble for  its  anatomical  structure.  Its  tendon  passes  through 
a  little  aperture  in  a  piece  of  cartilage,  which  is  fast- 
ened  to  the  upper  margin  of  the  orbit.  The  tendon  then 
turns  back,  forming  a  complete  pulley,  and  is  inserted 
into  the  upper  side  of  the  eye-ball  as  seen  in  the  figure. 
It  is  obvious  that  the  effect  produced  by  the  contraction 
of  this  muscle,  is  exactly  contrary  to  that  of  the  action 
of  its  fibres. 

513.  This  muscle  affords  another  instance  of  that  sim- 
plicity, effect,  and  design,  which  we  so  often  meet  with  in 
the  study  of  nature,  and  especially  in  the  mechanism  of 
the  human  frame.  Taking  the  contiguous  parts  as  they 
are,  in  no  other  situation  could  this  muscle  have  been 
placed,  without  interfering  with  the  action  of  some  other 
part,  nor  could  any  other  construction  occupying  the  same 
limited  space,  have  been  devised  to  answer  the  same  pur- 
pose, being  made  to  pull  in  a  direction  contrary  to  its  own 
action. 


MAGNITUDES   AND  DISTANCES    OF    OBJECTS. 

514.  An  inquiry  into  the  philosophy  of  vision  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  in  what  manner  we  are  able  to 
appreciate  the  distance  of  an  object  by  its  apparent  mag- 
nitude, together  with  the  subject  of  perspective,  and  the 
phenomena  of  vision  generally,  would  lead  us  far  beyond 
the  limits  of  this  work.  We  will,  however,  cite  two  or 
three  curious  cases,  in  order  to  show  how  far  we  are  able 
to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  -forms,  magnitudes,  and  dis- 
tances of  things  without  the  aid  of  the  eyes.  So  far  as 
any  of  us  can  remember,  we  have  always  been  able  -to 
form  a  judgment  of  the  forms,  distances,  and  magnitudes 
of  objects,  by  the  eye,  and  especially  with  respect  to 
those  which  are  not  at  very  remote  distances.  But 

w  far  these  distances  are  appreciated  by  walking  from 


VJi 

the 
ho 


Describe  the  upper  oblique  muscle  of  the  eye,  and  show  its  use.    What 
is  said  of  the  mechanism  of  these 


MAGNITUDES  AND  DISTANCES  OF  OBJECTS.  171 

one  object  to  another ;  and  how  much  we  are  indebted 
to  examination  by  the  touch,  for  our  knowledge  of  their 
forms,  or  how  much  our  judgment  of  their  magnitudes  de- 
pend on  comparisons,  perhaps  with  our  own  persons,  we 
are  unable  to  determine.  These  cases  show  that  we  are 
dependant  for  this  kind  of  knowledge,  in  a  great  measure, 
on  former  experience. 

515.  Chesselderfs  Case. — This  was  the  case  of  a  young 
gentleman  who  was  bora  blind,  or  lost  his  sight  so  early 
and  so  entirely,  that  he  had  no  remembrance  of  ever  hav- 
ing seen  any  object  whatever,  until  he  was  fourteen  years 
of  age.     His  disease  was  a  cataract  in  each  eye,  and  at 
this  age  it  was  couched,  as  the  operation   is  called,  and 
by  which  his  sight  was  restored. 

516.  "  When  he  first  saw,"  says  Chesselden,  "  he  was 
so  far  from  making  any  judgment  about  distances,  that  he 
thought  all  objects  whatever  touched  his  eyes  (as  he  ex- 
pressed it),  as  what  he  felt  did  his  skin,  and  thought  no 
objects   so  agreeable   as  those  which  were  smooth  and 
regular,  though  he  could  form  no  judgment  of  their  shape, 
or  guess  what  it  was  in  any  object  that  was  pleasing  to 
him.     He  knew  not  the  shape  of  anything,  nor  any  one 
thing  from  another,  however  different  in  shape  or  magni- 
tude ;  but  upon  being  told  what  things  were,  whose  forms 
he  knew  before,  from  feeling,  he  Would  carefully  observe, 
that  he  might  know  them  again ;    but  having  too  many 
objects  to  learn   at  once,  he  forgot  many  of  them ;  and 
(as  he  said)  at  first,  he  learned  to  know,  and  again  forgot 
thousands  of  things  in  a  day.     At  first,  he  could  bear  but 
very  little  light ;  and  the  things  he  saw  he  thought  ex- 
tremely large,  but  upon  seeing  things  larger,  those  first 
seen,  he  considered  less,  never  being  able  to  imagine  any 
lines  beyond  the  bounds  which  he  saw ;  the  room  he  was 
in,  he  said,  he  knew  to  be  but  a  part  of  the  house,  yet 
he  could  not  conceive  that  the  whole  house  could  look 
larger."     His  cat,  which,  of  course,  he   knew  perfectly 
well  by  feeling,  he  did  not  know  by  sight,  and  being  told 
what  it  was,  closed  his  eyes,  to  ascertain  the  truth  in  his 

usual  manner." 

.  • 

517.  Mr.  Wardrop's  Case. — A  case,  in  many  respects. 


172  SENSORIAL  FUNCTIONS. 

much  more  interesting  than  Chesselden's,  and  described 
more  in  detail,  was  laid  before  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don, in  1826,  by  Mr.  Wardrop,  a  celebrated  oculist.  This 
was  the  case  of  a  lady  born  blind,  but  who  received  her 
sight  at  the  age  of  forty-six,  by  the  formation  of  an  arti- 
ficial pupil. 

518.  After  a  third  operation,  which  Mr.  Wardrop  per- 
formed for  the  artificial  pupil,  she  returned  from  his  house 
in   a  carriage,  with  her  eye  covered  only  with  a  loose 
piece  of  silk.     The  first  thing  she  noticed  was  a  hackney- 
coach  passing  by,  when  she  exclaimed,  "  What  is  that 
large  thing  that  has  just  passed  by  ?"     In  the  course  of 
the  evening,  she  requested  her  brother  to  show  her  his 
watch,  w^hich  she   looked  at   for  some  time,  holding  it 
close  to  her  eye.     She  w^as  asked  what  she  saw,  to  which 
she  answered,  that  "  there  was  a  dark  and  a  bright  side ;" 
she   pointed   to   the  hour  of  twelve,  and    smiled.     Her 
brother  asked  her  if  she  saw  anything  more  ;  she  replied, 
"Yes,"  and  pointed  to  the  hands  of  the  watch.     She  then 
looked  at  the  chain  and  seals,  and  observed  that  one  of 
the  seals  was  bright,  which  was  the  case,  being  a  solid 
piece  of  rock-crystal. 

519.  On  the  third  day  she  observed  the  doors  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  street,  and   asked  if  they  were  red  ; 
they  were  of  an  oak  color.     In  the  evening  she  looked  at 
her  brother's  face,  and  said  she  saw  his  nose  ;  he  asked 
her  to  touch  it,  which  she  did  ;  he  then  slipped  a  hand- 
kerchief over  his  face,  and  asked  her  to  look  again,  when 
she  playfully  pulled  it  off. 

520.  On  the  thirteenth  day  of  the  operation,  she  walked 
out  with  her  brother  in  the  streets  of  London,  when  she 
distinctly  distinguished  the  street  from  the  foot-pavement, 
and  stepped  from  one  to  the  other  like  a  person  accustom- 
ed to  the  use  of  the  eyes. 

521.  "  Eighteen  days  after  the  operation,"  says  Mr. 
Wardrop,  "  I  attempted  to  ascertain,  by  a  few  experi- 
ments, her  precise  notions  of  color,  size,  and  forms,  posi- 
tions, motions,  and  distances  of  external  objects.  As  she 
could  only  see  with  one  eye,  nothing  could  be  ascertained 
respecting  the  question  of  double  vision.  She  evidently 
saw  the  difference  of  colors ;  that  is,  she  received,  and 
was  sensible  of  different  impressions  from  different  col- 


MAGNITUDES   AND   DISTANCES   OF   OBJECTS.  173 

ors.  When  pieces  of  paper  one  and  a  half  inches 
square  differently  colored,  were  presented  to  her,  she 
not  only  distinguished  them  from  one  another,  but  gave  a 
decided  preference  to  some  colors,  liking  the  yellow  most, 
and  then  pale  pink. 

522.  When  desirous  of  examining  an  object,  she  had 
considerable  difficulty  in  directing  her  eye  to  it,  and  finding 
out  its  position,  moving  her  hand,  as  well  as  her  eye,  in 
various  directions,   as  a  person  when  blindfolded  in  the 
dark,  gropes  with  his  hand  for  what  he  wishes  to  touch. 

523.  She  saw  objects  upright  as  we  do,  and  not  inverted. 
She  seemed  to  have  the  greatest  difficulty  in  rinding  out 
the  distance  of  any  objects,  for  when  the  thing  was  held 
close  to  her  eye,  she  would  search   for  it,  by  stretching 
her  hand  far  beyond  its  position,  while  on  other  occasions 
she  grasped,  close  to  her  own  face,  for  objects  far  re- 
mote." 

524.  From  these  cases  we  may  infer  how  faint  the  con- 
ceptions of  the  unfortunate  blind  must  be  to  the  charms 
and  beauties  of  the  external  world,  and  yet  having  never 
enjoyed  the  pleasures  which  we  derive  from  sight,  and 
therefore  being  unable  to  compare  their  own  conditions 
with  ours  in  this  respect,  they  are  far  from  feeling  that 
regret  at  their  own  situation,  which  we  should   if  de- 
prived of  sight.     Indeed,  we  believe  that   most  persons 
who  never  have  enjoyed  this  sense,  consider  their  con- 
dition by  far  less  deplorable  than  that  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb. 

525.  Insensibility  to  certain  Colors. — Sir  David  Brew- 
ster  has  collected  a  number  of  instances  in  which  the  eyes 
of  persons  were  either  totally  insensible  to  certain  colors, 
or  mistook  one  for  another,  although  in  every  other  respect 
the  visual  organs  were  quite  perfect.     Some  of  these  cases 
are  the  following. 

526.  Mr.    Scott,  who  describes  his  own  case   in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions,  mistook  pin k for  pale  Hue,  and 
a  full  red  for  a  full  green.     This  was  a  family  defect,  since 
Mr.  Scott's  father,  his  maternal  uncle,  one  of  his  sisters, 
and  her  two  sons,  all  mistook  these  colors  exactly  in  the 
same  manner. 

15* 


174  SENSORIAL   FUNCTIONS. 

527.  A  shoemaker,  named  Harris,  could  only  distinguish 
black  and  white  ;  and  when  a  child,  never  could  distin- 
guish the  cherries  on  the  tree  from  the  leaves,  except  by 
their  shape  and  size.     The  eyes  of  two  of  his  brothers  were 
equally  defective. 

528.  A  tailor,  at  Plymouth,  as  described  by  Mr.  Harvey 
of  the  same  place,  regarded  the  seven  prismatic  colors  as 
consisting  of  only  yellow  and  light  Hue.     In  other  re- 
spects he  could  only  distinguish  with  certainty,  gray,  white 
and  yellow.     This  defect  sometimes  led  him  to  ludicrous 
mistakes   in   his  business.      Thus,   on   one   occasion,   he 
repaired  a  black  silk  garment  with  crimson,  and  on  another, 
he  patched  the  elbow  of  a  blue  coat,  with  a  piece  of  crim- 
son cloth. 

529.  A  still  more  ludicrous  case  is  given  by  Dr.  Nichol, 
of  an  officer  in  the  British  Navy,  who  purchased  a  blue 
uniform  coat  and  waistcoat,  with  red  breeches  to  match. 
Mr.  Dugald  Stewart  was  unable  to  distinguish  any  differ- 
ence between  the  scarlet  color  of  the  Siberian  crab-apple 
and  the  leaves  of  the  tree. 

530.  Mr.  Troughton,  the  celebrated  optician,  can  distin- 
guish with  certainty  only  blue  and  yellow. 

No  satisfactory  solution  has  been  given  of  the  cause  of 
these  defects. 

COMPARATIVE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF    VISION. 

531.  The  lowest  orders  of  animals,  have  no  organs  ot 
vision  which  have  ever  been  detected,  and  yet"  some  of 
them  have  been  supposed  to  be  in  a  slight  degree  sensi- 
ble to  the  impression  of  light.     Thus  it  is  said,  the  me- 
dusaB,  in  a  calm  sea,  are  seen  to  rise  toward  the  surface, 
until  coming  within  the  full  influence  of  the  sun's  rays, 
they    descend    again   before    any    part    of    their    bodies 
comes  in  contact  with  the  atmosphere.     The  cause  of  the 
descent,  and  the   reason   why   they   never   expose   their 
bodies  above  the  water,  has  been  supposed  to  arise  from 
the  distinction  they  are  able  to  make  between  the  light 
near  the   surface  and  that  of  the  deep  sea.     It  is  most 
probable,  however,  that  these  animals  are  guided  by  the 
pressure  of  the  water,  rather  than  by  the  impression  of 
light. 


COMPARATIVE    PHYblOLOGY    OF    VISION.  175 

532.  In  the  snail,  the  eye  is  situated   at  the  extremity 
of  the  tentacula  or  feeler. 

533.  Eyes  of  Insects. — -Nearly  all  the  insects  are  fur- 
nished with  organs  of  vision  either  in  the  larva  or  perfect 
state,  and  many  of  them  in  both. 

Many  insects  are  furnished  with  two  kinds  of  eyes,  one 
kind  being  situated  on  each  side  of  the  head,  and  so  large 
as  not  to  escape  common  observation.  These  are  called 
compound  eyes.  The  others  are  three  in  number,  and  are 
situated  on  the  top  of  the  head,  obliquely  behind,  and  be- 
tween these.  These  are  called  stemmata.  They  are  either 
in  a  row,  or  in  the  form  of  a  triangle. 

534.  The  structure  of  the  stemmata  have  been  minutely 
examined,  by   Professor  Muller,  who  has  ascertained  that 
they  contained  a  hard  crystalline  lens,   a  vitreous  humor, 
and  a  choroid  coat,  the  whole  being  covered  externally  by 
a  hard  convex  coat.    In  wasps,  bees,  and  bugs,  these  parts 
are  distinguished  by  the  naked  eye,  and  so  far  as  external 
form  and  appearance  are  concerned,  may  be  satisfactorily 
examined  by  a  common  magnifier. 

535.  In  the  spider  the  stemmata  are  of  considerable 
size,  their  number  being  generally  eight,  and  their  situa- 
tion on  the  top  of  the  head,  where  they  are  disposed  wTith 
much  regard  to  symmetry. 

536.  The  compound  eyes  of  insects  are  among  the  most 
complex  and  curious  organs  which  the  animal  kingdom 
presents.     In  some  tribes,  as  in  the  wasp  and  dragon-fly, 
they  cover  a  large  portion  of  each  side  of  the  head,  and 
although  when   only   slightly   examined   they  present  a 
smooth  outside,  and  appear  each  as  a  single  eye,  yet  they 
are  formed  of  a  vast  number  of  separate  cylinders  or  elon- 
gated cones  closely  packed  together,  each  being  a  distinct 
eye,  and  capable  of  perfect  vision.     The  exterior  of  each 
tube  is  a  hexagon,  a  form  which  admits  of  the  closest  ar- 
rangement, like  the  cells  of  a  honey-comb. 

537.  The  number  of  these  cylinders  differ  much  in  dif- 
ferent insects.     In   the  ant  they  are  only  50  ;  in  some  of 


What  are  the  two  kinds  of  eyes  with  which  insects  are  furnished 
called  ?  What  are  their  situations  ?  Give  a  description  of  the  compound 
eye  of  an  insert 


176  SI-. 

the  beetles  they  are  upward  of  -3,000;  iii  the  silk-worm 
moth  they  are  6,236  ;  in  the  dragon-fly  12,544,  and  in 
some  insects  they  amount  to  20,000. 

538.  The  appearance  of  this  compound  eye  in  the  me- 
lolontha,  yellow  beetle,  or  may-bug,  when  highly  magni- 
fied, is  shown  by  Fig.  105. 

539.  Eye  of  the  Yellow  Beetle  magnified. — It  may  be 
observed  that  the  eye  of  this  insect  is  regularly  divided 
into  hexagonal  or  six-sided  sections,  Fl<r  ]05 
while  the  interior  of  each  tube  is 

round.  The  design  of  giving  in- 
sects such  a  number  of  eyes,  is  evi- 
dently that  they  may  be  enabled  to 
see  in  all  directions  without  moving 
the  eye-ball  or  head,  as  will  be 
shown  directly. 

540.  Magnified,  Eye  of  a  Butterfly. — In  the  phalena,  a 
genus  of  butterflies,  and  in  some  other  tribes,  the  little 
eyes  are  arranged  into  squares  instead  Fig.  106. 

of  hexagons,  as  shown  by  Fig.  106. 
The  design  of  this  variety  in  different 
species  is  unknown,  but  undoubtedly 
some  purpose  of  convenience  to  the  in- 
sect is  answered  by  it. 

541.  Structure  of  the  Compound  Eyes  of  Insects. — 
Naturalists  have  investigated  with  great  care  and  consid- 
erable labor  the  structure  of  the  compound  eyes  of  insects. 
The  following  account  of  the  mechanism  of  the  eye  of  the 
libellula  vulgata,  or  gray  dragon-fly,  is  the  result  of  the 
observations  of  M.  Duges,  a  French  naturalist.     The  fig- 
ures of  course  are  magnified,  some  of  them  many  hundred 
times. 

542.  The  whole  outside  surface  of  the  compound  eye, 
c  c,  Fig.  107,  may  be  considered  as  corresponding  to  the 
cornea  of  animals.      Each  separate  division  of  this  par/ 
in   insects   is   called   corneule,   or   little   cornea.      These 
are  shown  by  the  waved  line  on  the  circumference  of 


COMPARATIVE  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  VISION. 


177 


Fig. 107 


the  figure.  They  are  of  a  horny 
texture,  and  perfectly  transpa- 
rent. Each  corneule  has  the 
form  of  a  truncated  pyramid, 
the  length  of  which  is  between 
two  and  three  times  the  diame- 
ter of  the  base. 

543.  These  little  eyeglasses, 
as  shown  by  the  figure,  stand 
around    the    nervous   bulb  g, 
which   may  be  considered  the 
retina,  or   optic   ganglion,  and 

on  which  is  painted  the  images  of  objects,  as  they  are  on 
the  retina  of  animals  ;  each  corneule  being  of  itself  a  per- 
fect eye,  and,  according  to  Duges,  furnished  with  a  pupil, 
which  he  saw  contracting  and  dilating  in  proportion  to 
the  quantity  of  light. 

544.  Fig.  108  represents  some  of  these   tubes,  more 
highly  magnified,  in  order  to  show  their  precise  forms.  The 

'  Fig.  108. 
,05 


letters  u,  v,  x,  in  this  and  the  last  figure  correspond.  The 
dark  part  is  a  black  pigment  which  fills  a  portion  of  the 
diameter  of  each  tube,  the  aperture  widening  at  v,  where 
it  is  filled  with  a  vitreous  humor. 

545.  It  thus  appears  that  each  eye  forming  these  vast 
aggregates,  consists  of  a  distinct  tube,  furnished  with  all 
the  anatomical  parts  necessary  for  perfect  vision  ;  and  thus 
has  nature  supplied  the  want  of  motion  in  this  organ,  by 
a  multiplication  of  their  numbers,  so  that  the  insect  has  a 
distinct  eye,  pointed  toward  the  object,  in  whatever  direc- 
tion it  may  appear. 

546.  That  there  might  be  no  doubt  that  insects  have 
as  many  eyes  as  there  are  tubes  in  each,  Leeuwenhoek, 
having  prepared  the  compound  cornea  of  a  fly  for  the 
purpose,  placed  it  a  little  more  remote  from  his  micro- 


178  SENSORIAL  FUNCTION'S, 

scope  than  when  he  would  examine  an  object ;  and  look- 
ed through  both  in  the  manner  of  a  telescope,  at  the 
steeple  of  a  church,  which  was  299  feet  high,  and  750 
feet  distant,  and  could  plainly  see  through  every  little 
lens,  the  whole  steeple  inverted,  though  not  larger  than  the 
point  of  a  fine  needle  ;  and  then  directing  this  curious 
optical  instrument  toward  a  house,  he  saw  not  only  the 
front,  but  also  the  doors  and  windows,  and  could  plain- 
ly discern,  through  each,  whether  they  were  open  or 
clc 


547.  Eyes  of  Fishes.— In  the  fishes,  the  cornea  is  near- 
ly Hat,  as  is  the  case  with  all  aquatic  animals.     This  is  an 
adaptation  to  the  element   in  which  they  live,  for  since 
there  is  little  difference  between  the  density  of  the  water 
and  the  cornea,  there  would  be  but  little  refractive  power 
in  this  part,  were  its  convexity  ever  so  great.     The  refrac- 
tion is  therefore  chiefly  performed  by  the  crystalline  lens, 
which  has  great  power  in   this   respect,  its  form  being 
spherical,  and  its  texture  of  great  density,  properties  de- 
signed to  bring  the  rays  to  a  focus  at  a  very  short  distance, 
the  whole  eye  being  flat  instead  of  oblong  through  the 
axis,  as  in  land  animals. 

548.  This  structure  is  shown  by  Fig.  100,  which  rep- 
resents the  eye  of  the  perch  ;  c,  being  pig.  109. 

the  flat  cornea ;  /,  the  spherical  lens ;  v, 
the  vitreous  humor ;  r,  the  retina ;  o,  the 
optic  nerve ;  s,  the  sclerotic  coat,  and  k, 
a  part  called  the  choroid  gland,  shaped 
like  a  horse-shoe,  but  the  use  of  which 
is  entirely  unknown.  The  eyes  of  fish- 
es, being  continually  washed  by  the  ele- 
ment in  which  they  live,  require  no  glands,  to  secrete  a 
dust  fluid  for  moistening  them,  or  any  eyelids  to  prevent 
the  dust  from  falling  into  them. 

549.  Remarkable  Structure  of  the  Lens  of  a  Codfsh. — 
Sir  David  Brewster  has  recently  made  an  analysis  of  the 
structure  of  the  crystalline  lens  of  the  codfish,  to  which  he 
was  led  by  noticing  some  remarkable  optical  appearances 
presented  by  thin  layers  of  this  substance. 


COMPARATIVE    PHYSIOLOGY  OF   VISION.  179 

550.  He  found  that  the  hard  central  portion  is  composed 
of  a  succession  of  concentric,  and  perfectly  transparent, 
spheroidal  lamina?,  the  surfaces  of  which,  though  appa- 
rently smooth,  have  the  same  kind  of  irridescence  as  the 
shell  called    mother-of-pearl,  and    arising  from  the  same 
cause,    namely,    the    occurrence    of    regularly-arranged 
lines,  forming   a   striated   surface,  but  so  fine    as  to  be 
detected  only  by  a  powerful  magnifier.     These  lines,  which 
mark   the  edges  of  the  separate  fibres,  composing  each 
lamina,  converge  like  meridians  from  the  equator  toward 
the  two  poles  of  the  spheriod. 

551.  This  appearance,  magnified,  is  shown  by  Fig.  110, 
where  it  will  be  observed  that  these  fine  lines  converge 
to   a  centre  at  the  upper  part  of  the 

figure.  The  fibres  themselves  are  not 
cylindrical,  but  flat ;  and  they  taper 
at  each  end,  as  they  approach  the 
points  of  convergence.  The  breadth 
of  the  fibres  in  the  most  external  lay- 
er at  the  equator,  is  about  the  5,500th 
part  of  an  inch. 

552.  Having  his  curiosity  excited  by 

this    singular   structure,    Sir.    David   Brewster   continued 

his   microscopic    observations    on    the    same    substance, 

and  by  using  a  very  high  power,  he  further  discovered 

that  these  fibres  are  locked  together  at  the  edges  by  a 

series   of   teeth   resembling   those 

of  rack-work,   as   represented   by 

Fig.  111.     He  counted  the  teeth 

in  a  single  fibre,  and  found  that  =^ 

they  amounted  to    12,500,  and  as 

he    ascertained    that    the     whole 

lens    contained    about    5,000,000 

of  fibres,   the   whole    number   of 

these  teeth  in  a  single  lens  amount  to  the  number  of 

62,500,000,000. 

553.  Structure  of  the  Eyes  of  Birds. — The  eyes  of  birds 
are  very  large  when  compared  with  the  head,  or  with  those 
of  the  other  animals  of  the  same  size. 

What  is  said  of  the  eyes  of  birds  ? 


ISO 


SENSOR  I AL    FUNCTIONS 


c54.  The  chief  peculiarities  in  the  eyes  of  these  anirm  is, 
are  apparently  designed  to  accommodate  their  vision  to 
a  rare  medium ;  to  strong  degrees  of  light,  and  a  ready 
adjustment  to  objects  situated  at  very  different  distances. 
These  ends  appear  to  be  answered  chiefly  by  the  great 
prominence  of  the  cornea,  or  front  of  the  eye-ball,  which 
contains  an  uncommon  quantity  of  the  aqueous  humor,  so 
that  the  lens  is  situated  far  forward,  or  at  the  greatest  dis- 
tance from  the  retina.  On  optical  principles  this  arrange- 
ment enables  the  eye  to  see  near  objects  most  distinctly, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  refracting  power  of  the  lens 
becomes  susceptible  of  great  variations. 

555.  The  form  of  the  eye  in  birds  is  preserved  by  a  bony 
circle,  consisting  of  fifteen  or  twenty  pieces  overlappin 
each  other.     By  these  bones  the  sclerotic  coat  is  supporte 
and  its  hemispherical  prominence  maintained. 

556.  Nictitating  Membrane. — Most  birds  are  furnished 
with  a  winkifcg  membrane  (inembrana  trictitans),  which 
they  draw  over  the  eye-ball,  instead  of  closing  the  eye-lids. 
This  is  a  thin  delicate  structure,  so  translucent  as  to  admit 
a  diffused  light,  while  it  intercepts  the  direct  rays  from  the 
eye.     When  not  in  use,  it  is  closely  folded  up  in  the  inner 
cornea  of  the  eye. 

557.  This  membrane  is  represented  at 
Fig.    112,  covering  one  half  the  eye- 
ball.    Its  motion  is  horizontal,  and  is 
effected  by  two  muscles,  acting  upon 
each  other  by  a  peculiar  and  beautiful 
piece  of  mechanism. 

558.  The   first   of  these  muscles  is 
called,  from  its  shape,  the  quadratus,  q, 
Fig.  113,  and  arises  from  the  upper  and 
back  part  of  the  sclerotica,  its  fibres 
converging     and     terminating     in     a 
round    tendon,   as   seen   in  the  figure. 
This  tendon  serves  as  a  loop  for  (lint 
of  the  second  muscle  p,  which  is  cabl- 
ed the  pyramidalis,  and  which  has  its 
origin  on  the  lower,  and  back  part  of 

What  are  the  chief  peculiarities  of  the  eyes  of  birds  ?  How  are  the  ob- 
jects of  these  peculiarities  answered? 


Fig.  J12. 


Fig.  113. 


AUDITION.  181 


the  sclerotica.  The  long  tendon  of  this  muscle,  t,  after 
passing  through  the  loop  of  the  other,  which  acts  as  a 
pulley,  is  conducted  through  a  circular  sheath  to  the  under 
part  of  the  eye,  where  it  is  attached  to  the  lower  portion 
of  the  nictitating  membrane.  By  the  joint  action  of  these 
two  muscles,  the  membrane  is  instantly  drawn  over  the 
front  of  the  eye-ball.  Its  return  is  effected  by  its  own 
elasticity,  which  is  sufficient  to  carry  it  back  to  its  place 
in  the  inner  cornea  of  the  eye. 


AUDITION,  OR    HEARING. 

559.  Next  to  the  eye,  the  organs  of  hearing  are  more 
complex  and  refined  than  those  of  any  other  sense.     In- 
deed, certain  parts  of  the  mechanism  of  audition  are  not 
less  exqu'sitely   formed,  or  less  striking  and  wonderful  in 
their  functions,  than  the  most  admirable  parts  of  the  organs 
of  vision. 

560.  Principles  of  Acoustics. — -Acoustics  is  the  science 
which  treats  of  the  origin,  propagation,   and  effects  of 
sound.     For  an  epitome  of  this  science,  the  author  must 
refer  to  his  "  System  of  Natural  Philosophy,"   while  at 
present,  only  such  a  view  of  the  subject  will  be  stated   as 
is  absolutely  necessary,  in  order  to  understand  the  physiol- 
ogy of  the  ear. 

561.  Sound  is  the  result  of  vibratory  motions  in  the 
particles  of  a  sonorous,  or  sounding  body,  which  motions 
are  first  communicated  to  the  air,  and  by  the  air  to  the 
ear.  , 

562.  Sound  does  not,  like  light,  pass  through  void  space, 
it  being  proved  by  experiment  that  the  report  of  a  bell, 
struck  in  a  vacuum,  is  not  heard,  though  the  blow  is  seen, 
and  near  the  ear. 

563.  The  sounding  body  gives  an  impulse  to  the  air  in 
every  direction,  and  which  is  propagated  from  one  parti- 
cle to  another,  in  a  circle,  in  the  same  manner  that  the 


What  is  said  of  the  organs  of  hearing,  when  compared  with  those  of 
vision  ?  What  is  taught  by  the  science  of  acoustics  f  What  is  sound  ? 
How  is  sound  communicated  to  the  ear  ?  Does  sound  pass  through  a 
vacuum  or  not  ? 

16 


SENSOPJAL    FUNCTIONS. 

surface  of  a  calm  lake  is  thrown  into  circular  waves  by 
the  force  of  a  stone  thrown  into  it 

564.  The  velocity  of  sound  through  the  atmosphere  is 
about   1,100,   or   more   nearly    1,142   feet   in    a  second. 
Hence  we  see  the  flash  of  a  gun,   and  after  an  interval, 
depending  on  the  distance,  hear  the  report.     Thus  in  a 
thunder-storm,  if  we  allow  1,100  feet  per  second,  between 
the  time  when  the  flash  of  lightning  is  seen,  and  the  thun- 
der heard,  we  may  ascertain  very  nearly  the  distance  of 
the  cloud. 

565.  Solids  and  liquids  convey  sounds  much  more  per- 
fectly and  rapidly  than  air.     Franklin  found  that  a  sound, 
after  travelling  above  a  mile  through  water,  lost  little  of 
its  intensity ;  and  Chladni  states,  that,  according  to  his  ex- 
periments, the  velocity  of  sound  in  water  is  at  the  rate  of 
about  4,900  feet  in  a  second,  being  between  four  and  five 
times  more  rapid  than  it  is  through  the  air. 

.  566.  In  musical  tones,  if  the  intervals  between  the  vi- 
brations be  short,  the  tone  is  acute,  if  long  the  tone  is 
grave.  Hence  in  the  violin,  and  other  musical  instruments, 
the  strings  designed  for  h'gh  or  acute  notes  are  small,  that 
their  vibrations  may  be  rapid  ;  while  those  which  make 
the  low  or  grave  tones  are  large,  and  sometimes  wound 
around  with  fine  wire,  in  order  to  increase  their  weight, 
and  thus  to  make  them  vibrate  slowly. 

567.  In  musical  tones,  it  is  the  quality  and  variety  of 
the  sounds  which  give  the  hearer  so  much  pleasure.      The 
string  of  the  harpsichord,  when  fastened  to  a  piece  of 
board,  or  to   the  ground,  may  be  made  to  give  the  same 
pitch,  or  grade  of  tone  with  respect  to  gravity  or  acuteness, 
as  when  on  the  instrument,  but  an  instrument  having  such 
a  quality  of  tone  would  give  no  pleasure  to  the  ear. 

568.  The  ear  is  susceptible  of  much   cultivation  with 
respect  to  music,  as  is  the  eye  with  respect  to  painting. 
The   finest  and  -most  complex  strains  of  music  are  often 
lost  upon  the  uneducated  ear,  as  the  noblest  works  of 
the  painter  are  unappreciated  by  the  uncultivated  eye. 
Hence  tones,  and  pictures,  which  raise  the  most  enthu- 

In  what  direction  is  sound  propagated  ?  What  is  the  velocity  with 
Vrhich  sound  passes  through  the  air?  How  may  we  tell  the  distance  of 
a  thunder-cloud  ?  What  is  said  of  the  propagation  ol  sounds  by  solids 
and  fluids  ?  How  are  grave  or  acute  musical  tones  formed  ? 


AUDITORY  APPARATUS  IN  MAN.  183 

siastic  feelings  in  one,  are  heard  and  seen  by  another  with 
no  sort  of  effect.  It  is  true,  however,  that  there  is  a  natu- 
ral difference  in  these  respects,  and  especially  with  regard 
to  music,  there  being  some  uneducated  ears  which  are  able 
to  appreciate  the  finest  passages  in  a  piece,  though  they 
never  had  heard  good  music  before.  This,  however,  is 
seldom  the  case  with  respect  to  painting,  deep  impressions 
and  good  judgment  being  nearly  in  every  case  the  result 
of  education. 

569.  In  treating  of  hearing,  we  shall,  as  we  have  done 
with  respect  to  vision,  begin  with  that  structure  which  is 
most  highly  developed  and  best  understood,  the  human  ear. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  AUDITORY  APPARATUS  IN  MAN. 

570.  The  best  summary  on  this  subject  we  have  seen, 
for  the  design  of  this  work,  is  that  of  Dr.  Roget,  in  his 
"  Bridgewater  Treatise,  on  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physi- 
ology."    This,  therefore,  will  form  the  basis  of  the  follow- 
ing treatise. 

571.  That  part  of  the  organ  of  hearing,  which,  above 
all  others,  is  essential,  is  the  acoustic  or  auditory  nerve, 
of  which  the  fibres  are  expanded,   and  spread  over  the 
surface  of  a  fine  membrane,  placed  in  a  situation  adapted 
to  receive  the  full  impression  of  the  sonorous  undulations 
which  are  conveyed  to  them.     This  membrane,  then,  with 
its  nervous  filaments,  which  is  situated  within  the  labyrinth, 
may  be  regarded  as  the  immediate  organ  of  this  sense ;  all 
the  other  parts  constituting  merely  an  accessory  apparatus, 
designed  to  collect  and  condense  the  vibrations  of  the  sur- 
rounding medium,   and  to  direct  their  concentrated  action 
on  the  auditory  membrane. 

572.  The  principal  parts  of  this  complicated  organ  are 
exhibited  in  Fig.  114,  as  they  exist  in  man,  in  their  rela- 
tive and  of  their  natural  sizes  ;  these  parts  will,  therefore, 
afford  a  scale  of  real  dimensions  of  those  portions  which 
will  hereafter  be  explained  by  magnified  views. 


What  is  it  in  musical  tones  that  give  pleasure  ?  What  is  said  of  the  ear  * 
Can  some  enjoy  good  music  without  education  ? 


184 


SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 


573.  External  Ear.— The  external  ear,  c,  is  called  the 
concha  ;  from  this  there  opens  a  funnel-shaped  orifice,  ra, 
called  the  meatus  auditorius,  or  orifice  of  the  ear,  which 
leads  to  the  internal  parts.  At  the  internal  extremity  of 
this  orifice,  and  which  it  closes,  is  situated  the  ear-drum, 
d,  called  the  tympanum.  Behind  the  ear-drum  there  is  a 
hollow  space,  t,  called  the  cavity  of  the  tympanum. 
From  this  cavity,  a  trumpet-shaped  tube,  e,  called  the 

Fig.  114. 


eustachian  tube,  leads  to  the  back  part  of  the  nostrils,  01 
roof  of  the  mouth.  The  parts  marked  s,  v,  k,  consist  of 
several  intricate  winding  passages  called  the  labyrinth. 
This  part  will  be  explained  by  another  figure.  Connected 
with  the  ear-drum  there  is  a  chain  of  moveable  bones 
marked  6,  which  are  also  explained  by  another  figure. 
The  auditory  nerve  is  seen  at  n,  passing  into  the  centre  of 
the  labyrinth 

574.  The  external  ear  appears  to  be  formed  tor  the  pur- 
pose of  collecting  the  sonorous  undulations  of  the  air, 
and  of  directing  them  through  the  canal  to  the  ear-drum. 
The  ear-drum  is  stretched  across  the  meatus,  or  ori- 
fice of  the  ear,  like  the  skin  of  a  drum,  whence  its 
name  ;  and  it  performs  a  corresponding  office ;  for  the 


AUDITORY    APPARATUS    IN    MAN.  185 

undulations  of  the  air  throw  it  into  a  similar  state  of  vibra- 
tion. The  structure  of  this  part  is  muscular,  being  thus 
designed  to  adapt  itself  to  the  force  of  the  vibrations  com- 
municated to  it  from  the  external  air. 

575.  The  cavity  of  the  tympanum  t,  behind  the  ear- 
drum, is  always  filled  with  air,  but  it  would  obviously  de- 
feat the  design  of  this  organ,  were  the  air  confined  to  this 
space,  because,  unless  it  were  in  a  state  to  expand  and 
contract,  it  could  not  remain  in  equilibrium  with  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  external  surface  of 
the  drum,  which  of  course  varies,  according  to  the  rise 
and  fall  of  the  barometer.  Hence,  were  this  air  con- 
fined, an  intense  internal  pressure  on  the  drum  would 
be  the  consequence,  whenever  the  external  pressure 
happened  to  be  partially  removed,  as  when  one  ascends 
a  mountain,  or  mounts  up  in  a  balloon.  Against  such 
an  evil,  there  is  an  effectual  guard'  by  the  communication 
between  the  internal  ear  and  the  atmosphere,  by  means 
of  the  eustachian  tube,  e.  This  tube,  as  the  figure 
shows,  Begins  with  a  small  orifice,  and  d^ens  with  a  wide 
mouth  back  of  the  nostrils.  It  performs  the  same  office 
in  the  ear,  that  the  aperture  in  the  side  of  a  drum  does 
in  that  instrument;  that  is,  it  forms  a  communication 
with  the  external  air,  which  appears  to  be  as  necessary 
to  the  functions  of  the  ear,  as  it  is  for  the  sound  of  the 
drum.  When  the  air-hole  of  a  drum  is  stopped,  the 
instrument  not  only  does  not  sounds  as  usual,  but  the 
head  is  liable  to  be  broken,  by  the  reaction  of  the  con- 
fined air;  and  when  the  eustachian  tube  is  obstructed, 
as  is  often  the  case  during  influenza,  or  colds,  by  which 
this  part  is  swollen  or  its  secretion  is  increased  by  in- 
flammation, then  a  partial  deafness  is  the  consequence. 
This  tube  also  appears  to  be  the  channel  through  which 
sound  may  be  admitted,  or  perhaps  the  hearing  is  more 
perfect  when  there  is  an  ample  communication  between 
the  external  air  and  the  tympanic  cavity,  for  it  is  well 


Where  is  the  ear-drum  situated  ?  What  effect  do  the  undulations  of  the 
air  have  upon  the  ear-drum?  What  is  the  cavity  within  the  tympanum 
called?  What  tube  communicates  with  the  cavity?  What  would  be  the 
effect  were  the  air  of  this  cavity  confined  ?  Why  does  one  open  his  mouth 
in  order  to  hear  a  distant  sound  ? 

16* 


186  SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 

known  that  when  one  listens  to  a  scarcely  audible  sound 
he  instinctively  opens  his  mouth.  When  this  tube  is  entirely 
closed,  total  deafness  is  often  the  result. 

576.  Bones  of  the  Ear. — Behind,  or  within  the  interior 
side  of  the  tympanum,  there  is   a  chain  of  very  minute 
moveable  bones,  of  peculiar  shapes,  seen  of  the  natural 
sizes  at  b.     One  end  of  this  chain  is  fastened  to  the  tym- 
panum, and  the  other  to  a  part  called  the  fenestra  ovalis, 
or  oval  window.     The  latter  part  is  a  membrane  situated 
in  the  cavity  of  the  tympanum,  opposite  to  the  orifice  of  the 
eustachian  tube,  and  covering  a  cell  in  the  bone,  called  a 
mastoid  cell,  which  cell  is  filled  with  air. 

577.  These  bones,  called  the  tympanic  ossicula,  or  little 
bones  of  the  drum,  are  represented  separate,  arid  twice 
their  natural  size,  by  Fig.  115.  Fig.  115. 

Their  names  have  been  deri- 
ved from  their  shapes,  rather 
than  the  offices  they  perform. 
The  first,  m,  is  Ihe  malleus,  or 
hammer,  the  long  handle  h,  of4 
which  is  affixed  to  the  ear- 
drum; the  second,  i,  is  the 
incus,  or  anvil,  which  somewhat  resembles  in  shape  a 
molar  tooth,  the  crown  of  which  is  attached  to  the  head 
of  the  hammer ;  the  third,  o,  is  the  round,  or  orbicular 
bone.  This  is  the  smallest  bone  in  the  human  skeleton, 
being  no  larger  than  a  millet  seed,  and  is  situated  be- 
tween the  long  process  of  the  anvil  and  the  next  bone  in 
the  number.  The  fourth  and  last  bone  in  the  chain  is  the 
stapes,  or  stirrup,  s,  which  is  fastened  by  its  base,  or 
widest  part  to  the  fenestra  ovalis. 

578.  The  bones   are  regularly  articulated    with    each 
other  so  as  to  allow  of  motion  between  each  two,  and  their 
office  appears  to  be,  to  transmit  the  vibrations  of  the  ear- 
drum to  the  fenestra  ovalis,  and  probably  also  to  increase 
the  force  of  these  vibrations. 

579.  Labyrinth  of  the  Ear. — We  have  thus  given  a  sum- 


Where  are  the  bones  of  the  ear  situated?    To  what  parts  are   these 
bones  attached  ?     What  are  the  names  of  the  tympanic  ossicula  ? 


AUDITORY  APPARATUS  IN  MAN. 


187 


Fig.  116. 


inary  description  of  the  organs  of  audition,  as  far  as  the 
labyrinth,  which  in  Fig.  114,  is  marked  v, s,  k,  and  is 
there  drawn  of  the  natural  size.  But  in  order  to  give 
any  distinct  conception  of  this  part,  it  is  necessary  to  rep- 
resent it  on  a  large  scale,  which  is  done  by  Fig.  116. 
In  this  figure,  the  labyrinth 
is  detached  from  every  other 
part,  and  separated  from  the 
solid  bone  in  which  it  is 
embedded.  It  consists  of  a 
middle  portion  called  the 
vestibule,  v,  from  which,  on 
its  upper  and  posterior  side, 
proceed  the  three  tubes,  x,  y, 
z,  called  from  their  shapes, 
the  semi-circular  canals ; 
while  the  lower  side  of  the 
vestibule  terminates  in  a  spi- 
ral canal,  resembling  in  ap- 
pearance, or  rather  in  form, 
the  shell  of  a  snail,  k,  and 
on  that  account  is  denomi- 
nated the  cochlea. 

580.  All  these  cavities  are  surrounded  by  solid  bone, 
lined  with  a  very  delicate  membrane,  called  the  perioste- 
um, and  are  filled  with  a  transparent,  watery  fluid,  called 
the  perilymph.  The  parts  marked  a,  a,  are  merely  the 
swellings  of  the  semi-circular  canals  at  their  junction  with 
the  vestibule.  Within  the  sac  of  the  vestibule  at  the  point 
o,  there  are  found  two  or  three  masses  of  chalky,  or  cal- 
careous matter,  suspended  in  the  fluid  by  the  intervention 
of  some  nervous  filaments,  proceeding  from  the  auditory 
nerve.  These  exist  in  the  ears  of  all  the  mammalia,  and 
therefore  undoubtedly  perform  some  important  office,  but 
of  what  kind  is  unknown.  They  are  also  found  in  aquatic 
animals,  and  of  a  larger  size,  and  greater  hardness,  than 
in  others. 


Where  is  the  labyrinth  of  the  ear  situated  ?  What  part  of  the  labyrinth 
is  the  vestibule  ?  What  are  the  semi-circular  canals  f  What  part  is  de- 
nominated cochlea  ? 


18S  SENSOR1AL    FUNCTIONS. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  AUDITION  IN  MAN. 

581.  The  uses  of  several  parts  oi  the  complex  appara- 
tus above  described,  remain  unknown     The   following, 
however,  appears  to  be  the  manner  in  which  hearing  is 
performed. 

582.  The  sonorous  vibrations,  being  transmitted  through 
the  air  to  the  external  ear,  are  collected  by  its  sinuous  ca- 
nals, and  directed  through  the  auditory  orifice  to  the  ear- 
drum, which  is  thereby  made  to  vibrate.     The  action  of 
the  tympanum   as  a   muscle,  is    undoubtedly  concerned, 
in  this  effect,  probably  becoming  more  or  less  tense  as  the 
sound  is  less  or  more  audible.     The  vibrations  of  the  tym- 
panum are  communicated  through  the  chain  of  bones  to 
the  fenestra  ovalis,  which  being  a  membrane  covering  a 
part  of  the  labyrinth,  the  motion  is  communicated  to  the 
fluid  which  the   labyrinth  contains.     The  undulations  of 
the   fluid  thus  excited,  produce  auditory  impressions  on 
the  nerves  of  the  ear,  which  are  spread  over  the  inside 
of  the   membrane  lining  the  labyrinth,  and  by  them  are 
conveyed  to  the  brain,  thus  giving  the  sensation   called 
sound. 

583.  The  tympanum  undoubtedly  becomes  more  tense, 
by  the  stimulus  of  sound,  and   hence  in   some   persons 
where  this  part  is  naturally  lax,  or  has  become  so  by  dis- 
ease, there  is  a  difficulty  of  hearing  low  sounds,  except 
when  the  drum  is  excited  by  louder  ones.     Thus  we  know 
a  person  who  can  distinguish  ordinary  conversation  when 
walking  in  the  sound  of  the  surf  on  the  seashore,  but  who 
hears  with  much  difficulty  even  a  loud  voice,  in  a  silent 
place. 

584.  With  regard  to  the  purposes  which  are  answered 
by  the  semi-circular  canals,  and  the  cochlea,  hardly  any 
plausible  conjectures  can  be  offered;  yet  no  doubt  can 
be  entertained  of  the  importance  of  all  these  parts  in  au- 
dition ;  for,  we  find  that  when  wTe  are  able  fully  to  un- 
derstand the   uses  of  any  piece  of   natural   mechanism, 
every  part  in  one  way  or   another,  serves  to  make  the 

Are  the  uses  of  all  the  parts  of  the  internal  ear  understood  ?  What  is 
.he  use  of  the  external  ear  ?  What  is  the  use  of  the  tympanum  ?  How 
does  the  tympanum  probably  act  as  a  muscle  ?  How  are  the  vibrations  of 
the  ear-drum  communicated  to  the  vestibule? 


COMPARATIVE   PHYSIOLOGY   OF   HEARING.  189 

•whole  the  more  perfect,  and  we  may  presume,  therefore, 
that  such  is  the  case  with  respect  to  the  ear. 

585.  It  dots  not,  however,  appear,  that  the  preliminary 
steps  with  respect  to  the  introduction  of  sonorous  vibra- 
tions into  the  ear,  as  above  described,  are  necessary ;  nor 
that  all  the  parts  usually  concerned  in  the  process  of  hear- 
ing are  required,  since  Sir  Astley  Cooper  has  recorded 
cases  in  which  hearing  remained  perfect,  after  the  tympa- 
num was  destroyed,  and  the  little  bones  lost.  More  com- 
monly, however,  the  loss  of  these  parts  produce  total 
deafness  for  a  time,  after  which  the  power  of  hearing  is 
often,  in  a  measure,  regained,  and  in  some  instances  entire- 
ly. It  is  well  known,  that  a  puncture  through  the  ear- 
drum does  not  at  all  affect  the  power  of  that  organ. 


COMPARATIVE  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  HEARING. 

586.  We  have  seen  that  the  organs  of  circulation,  of 
vision,   and  of  respiration  and  digestion,   all  present  the 
most  simple  structures  in  the   lower   orders  of  animals, 
and  that  all  these  organs  increase  in  complexity  and  per- 
fection, as  animals  rise  in  the  scale  of.  capacity  and  pow- 
er.     The   organs  of  hearing   follow   the   same   law   of 
gradation,  the  most  complex  being  found  in  the  higher 
orders  of  animals,   of  which   we   have   an    example   in 
those  of  man.     In  the  inferior  races,  hearing  is  perform- 
ed by  means  of  a  simple  vestibule  with  its  membranous 
sac,  supplied  with  nervous  filaments  leading  through  the 
auditory  nerve  to  the  brain.     This  simple  form  is  found 
in  most  aquatic  animals,  the  sonorous  undulations  of  the 
water  requiring  neither  tympanum  or  bones,  nor  indeed 
any  of  the  complex  accessory  parts  found  in  the  mammalia 
and  man. 

587.  We  have  seen,  that,  according  to  the  experiment 
of  Franklin,    sound  passes  to  a  great   distance  through 
water  without  losing  much  of  its  intensity,  and,  according 


What  effect  does,  the  destruction  of  the  ear-drum  have  upon  the  hear- 
ing ?  What  effect  does  the  puncture  of  the  ear-drum  have  upon  the  hear- 
ing?  What  is  said  of  the  continuation  of  the  auditory  organs  in  the 
lower  and  higher  orders  of  animals  ?  What  does  the  organ  of  hearing  in 
fishes  consist  of 


190  SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 

to  the  experiments  of  others,  its  'transmission  through 
water  is  more  than  four  times  more  rapid  than  it  is  through 
the  air.  These  facts  assist  us  in  understanding  why  it  Is, 
that  no  part  is  required  in  aquatics,  like  the  tympanum 
and  little  bones,  to  increase  the  sonorous  undulations,  and 
also  why  these  organs,  in  other  respects,  may  be  re- 
duced to  their  utmost  simplicity,  since  the  water 'in  which 
they  live  transmits  sound  with  so  little  diminution  of  its 
intensity. 

588.  Hearing  in  the  Lobster. — The  simple  auditory  ap- 
paratus, as  it  is  found  in  the  lobster,  is  represented  by 
Fig.  117.      It  consists  of  a  vestibular  cavity  at  v,  con- 
Fig.  117. 


taining  a  membranous  sac,  g,  which  is  furnished  with  the 
filaments  of  the  auditory  nerve.  This  vestibule  is. pro- 
tected on  all  sides  by  solid  matter  (as  the  same  is  by  bone 
in  the  human  ear),  except  at  one  part,  e,  where  it  is 
closed  by  a  membrane,  like  the  fenestra  ovalis,  to  which 
part,  therefore,  it  corresponds.  The  water  coming  in 
contact  with  this  membrane,  the  sound  is  transmitted 
through  it  to  the  nerves  of  the  vestibule,  and  so  to  the 
brain. 

589.  The  mollusca  appear  to  be  entirely  destitute  of  the 
sense  of  hearing,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  highly  organized 
cephalopoda,  or  cuttle-fish  tribe.     In  these,  there  exists  a 
tubercle   containing  two  membranous  sacs,  which  corre- 
spond to  the  vestibules  of  other  animals. 

590.  Hearing  in  the  Frog. — In  the  frog,  the  ear  is  en- 
tirely closed  on  the  outside  by  a  membrane,  situated -over 
a  little  cavity  on  each  side  of  the  head,  but  on  a  level 


Why  is  it  supposed  unnecessary  that  the  vibratory  apparatus  should 
exist  in  aquatics  ? 


COMPARATIVE    PHYSIOLOGY   OF    HEARING.  191 

rvith  the  integuments.  The  membrane  corresponds  to  the 
ear-drum  of  the  mammalia,  the  cavity  within,  containing 
air.  From  this  cavity  there  proceeds  a  eustachian  tube ; 
and  from  the  external  membrane  to  the  vestibule  there 
extends  a  small  bone,  shaped  like  a  trumpet,  and  called 
the  columella. 

591.  These  parts  are  represented  by  Fig.  118  :  where  c, 
is  the  .columella  of  an  elegant  trumpet-shape,  having  its 
base  6,  attached  to  the  fenestra 

ovalis  of  the  vestibule,  v,  and  '  ^ 

which  contains  the  chalky 
body,  o.  There  is  also  a  small 
bone,  i,  appended  to  the  end 
or  front  of  the  columella, 
where  this  is  attached  to  the 
external  membrane,  or  ear- 
drum. 

592.  In  the  frog,  therefore,  the  sonorous  undulations  of 
the  air,  instead  of  passing  through  an  aperture,  as  in  man, 
strike  the  tympanum  on  the  outside  of  the  head,  the  vibra- 
tions of  which,  are  commnicated  immediately  to  the  fenes- 
tra ovalis  of  the  vestibule,  and  through  the  auditory  nerves 
spread  over  it,  directly  to  the  brain.     In  other  amphibia, 
these  parts  are  essentially  the  same. 

593.  This  mechanism  is  probably  designed  to  enable  the 
animal  to  hear  both  in  air  and  water. 

594.  In  the  fishes  there  is  no  internal  cavity  containing 
air,  as  is  also  the  case  with  the  lobster,  the  ear  of  which, 
as  we  have  seen,  is  so  contrived  as  to  place  the  fenestra 
or  window  of  the  vestibule,  which  contains  the  nerves  of 
hearing  on  the  outside,  so  that  the  sonorous  undulations  of 
the  water  are  communicated  immediately  to  the  auditory 
nerves. 

595.  In  the  frog  there  is  a  communication  from  the  ex- 
ternal tympanum  to  the  vestibule  by  a  solid  body,  the  op- 
eration of  which,  therefore,  does  not  differ  from  that  of 
the  lobster ;    but  in   addition  to   this,  there   is  a  cavity 


What  is  said  of  the  hearing  of  the  mollusca  ?  What  description  can 
you  give  of  a  frog's  ears?  By  what  mechanism  is  the  frog  fitted  to  hear 
both  in  the  air  and  in  water. 


192  SENSORIAL   FUNCTIONS. 

under  the  tympanum  containing  air  ;  this  part  of  the  ap- 
paratus being  obviously  fitted  for  atmospheric  hearing,  as 
the  other  apparently  is  for  aquatic  hearing  only. 

596.  What  clear  marks  of  design  and  what  wonderful 
traces  of  wisdom  and  goodness  is  evinced  in  the  adaptation 
of  these  parts  to  the  wants  and  habits  of  these  poor  cold- 
blooded  animals  !     Truly,  "  an  undevout  naturalist  must 
be  mad." 

597.  Hearing  in  Birds. — In  the  birds  there  is  a  cavity 
beyond  the  tympanum,  as  in  man,  and  the  tympanum  it- 
self, instead  of  being  on  the  outside,  lies  concealed  in  a 
short  tube,  without  any  external  ear,  thus  placing  this  class, 
in  respect  to  the  auditory  apparatus,  between  the  amphibia 
and  quadrupeds. 

598.  The  ear  of  man  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of 
the  interior  structure  of  this  organ  in  the  whole  of  the  oth- 
er mammalia.    In  quadrupeds,  the  chief  peculiarity  in  other 
respects  is  in  the  size  and  form  of  the  external  ear ;  and 
from  a  comparison  of  the  relative  size  of  this  part  in  the 
various  tribes,  it  has  been  inferred,  that  it  bears  a  tolerably 
constant  proportion  to  the  degree  of  acuteness  of  hearing, 
and  consequently,  that  it  contributes  essentially  to  that 
faculty.     Thus  in  the  rabbit,  where  the  cochlea  is  uncom- 
monly long,  and  somewhat  trumpet-shaped,  the  hearing  is 
remarkably  acute.     In  the  dog,  and  horse,  this  part  is  well 
developed,  and  we  accordingly  find  a  corresponding  acute- 
ness  of  hearing. 

599.  In  animals  with  long  ears,  there  are  muscles  for 
the  purpose  of  erecting  them  or  turning  them  toward  the 
point  whence  the  sound  proceeds ;  and  thus  they  have  the 
effect  of  an  ear-trumpet,  in  concentrating  the  sonorous 
undulations,  from  whatever  direction  they  come.     Every 
one  must  have  observed  the  employment  of  this  faculty 
in  the  horse,  which    always   turns   his   ear   in   the   di- 
rection of  the  sound.  Hence  it  is  that  the  leaders  of  coach- 
horses  turn  their  ears  forward,  while  those  behind  them 


What  is  said  of  the  ears  of  birds?  What  is  the  construction  of  the  in- 
ternal ear  of  the  mammalia  ?  Is  there  any  relation  between  the  external 
ears  of  animals  and  their  sense  of  hearing  !  Do  men  ever  possess  the 
Dower  of  turning  their  ears  ? 


MUSICAL    EAR.  193 

turn  theirs  backward.  In  a  few  instances,  men,  like 
quadrupeds,  have  had  the  power  of  turning  their  ears  back- 
ward or  forward,  at  pleasure. 

MUSICAL    EAR. 

600.  That  learned  anatomist,  Sir  Everard  Home,  con- 
sidered the  ear-drum,  with  its  radiated  muscular-fibres,  as 
a  sort  of  monochord,  or  rather,  perhaps,  the  string  of  the 
monochord,  "  of  which  the  tensor  muscles  are  the  screw, 
giving  the  necessary  tension  to  make  the  string  perform 
its  proper  scale  of  vibrations,  and  the  radiated  muscle 
acting  upon  the  membrane  like  the  moveable  bridge  of 
the  monochord,  adjusting  it  to  the  vibrations  required  to 
be  produced."     The  same  philosopher  says,  that  "  the 
difference  between   a  musical  ear  and  one  that  is  too  im- 
perfect to  distinguish  the  different  notes  of  music   will 
appear  to  arise  entirely  from  the  greater  or  less  nicety 
with  which  the  muscle  of  the  malleus  renders  the  mem- 
brane capable  of  being  truly  adjusted.     If  the  tension  is 
perfect,  all  the  variations  .  produced  by  the  action  of  the 
radiated  muscle  will  be  equally  correct,  and  the  ear  truly 
musical." 

601.  This  view  of  the  subject  would  make  a  musical  ear 
little  more  than  a  fine  piece  of  mechanism,  in  which  the 
mind  has  no  participation.     But  we  cannot  believe  that 
this  is  the  true  doctrine ;  for  although  some  quadrupeds, 
it  is  said,  will  listen  to  the  strains  of  music  with  seeming 
pleasure,  yet  it  is  most  clearly  through  his  intellect  that 
man   enjoys   that    high    degree    of    gratification   which 
music  is  capable  of  conferring.      It  is  therefore  in  the 
brain  itself  that  which  is  called  the   "  musical  ear  "    is 
situated,  the  mechanical  apparatus  of  audition  being,  in 
this  respect,  merely  the  instrument  by  which  the  sono- 
rous  undulations   constituting   melody,   are   conveyed   to 
the  soul. 


What  was  Sir  E.  Home's  opinion  with  respect  to  the  action  of  the 
ear-drum  in  forming  a  musical  car  ?  WheYe  is  it  said  the  musical  ear  is 
situated  ? 

17 


194  SENSORIAL  FT'NCTION'-. 

602.  The  charms  of  Music  do  not  depend  on  the  Tympa- 
num.— That  the  charms  of  music  do  not  always  depend  on 
the -vibrations  of  the   tympanum,  is   proved  by  the  fact 
already  noticed,  that  this  part  is  sometimes  entirely  destroy- 
ed, and  still  the  power  of  hearing  is  retained. 

603.  The  case  alluded  to  is  detailed  by  Sir  Astley  Coop- 
er, in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  for  1801,  of 
which  we  will  here  give  a  summary.     The  subject  was 
a  gentleman  who  stated  to  Sir  Astley,  that  at  the  age  of 
ten  years  he    was    attacked    with    an    inil  animation    and 
suppuration   of  the  left  ear,  which   continued  to  discharge 
matter  for   several  weeks.     In   about    a  year  afterward, 
the  right  ear  was  attacked  with  similar  symptoms,  and  in 
consequence  he  became  totally  deaf,  and  remained  so  for 
three  months.     His  hearing  then  began  gradually  to  return, 
and  in  about  ten  months  he  was  restored  to  the  state  in 
which  Sir  Astley  found  him. 

604.  The  ear-drums  were  found  to  be  totally  destroyed, 
together  with  the  little  bones,  which  had  escaped  with  the 
matter  during  the  suppuration.     Hence,  there  was  a  com- 
munication from   the  mouth  through  the  eustachian  tubes, 
to  the   external  orifice  of  the  ear.     This  was  shown  by 
filling  his  mouth  with   air,  closing  the  nostrils,  and  com- 
pressing  the   cheeks,  when  the  air  thus   compressed  was 
heard  to  rush  out  of  the  external  orifice  with   a  whirling 
sound,  the  hair  on  each  side  of  the  cheeks  becoming  agitated 
by  the  current.     When   a  candle  was  applied,  the  flame 
was  also  agitated  by  the  stream  of  air. 

605.  Sir  Astley  ascertained  by  minute  examination,  that 
not  a  vestige  of  the  tympanum  remained  in  the  left  ear, 
and  that  in  the  right,  though  there  was  a  remnant  of  it 
around  the  circumference,  the  centre  was  gone,  leaving 
an  aperture  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter.     Yet  this 
gentleman  was   not  only  capable   of  hearing  every  thing 
that  was  said  in  company,  but  was  nicely  susceptible  to 
musical  tones.     He  played  well  on  the  flute,  and  had  fre- 
quently taken  a  part  in  concerts ;  he  also  sung  with  taste, 
and  perfectly  in  tune. 

How  is  it  shown  that  the  charms  of  music,  or  even  common  sounds,  do 
not  depend  on  the  vibrations  of  the  tympanum. 


MUSICAL   EAR.  195 

606.  Musical  Ear  situated  in  the  Brain. — But  if  if.  be 
objected  that  the"  above  is  a  rare  and  extraordinary  case, 
and  tends  to  prove  that  the  tympanum  may  be  dispensed 
with,  in  ordinary  hearing,  as  well  as  in  the  constitution 
of  a  musical  ear ;  still,  setting  this  case  aside,  we  find 
that  those  who  have  no  ears  for  music,  are  equally,  with 
the  most  enthusiastic  amateurs,  capable  of  distinguishing 
every  kind  of  sound,  from  the  full  peal  of  the  organ  to 
the  evanescent  tones  of  the  Eolian  harp.     His  sense  of 
hearing,  therefore,  is  equally  perfect,  with  that  of  a  most 
skilful  musician ;  and  consequently  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  his  mere  physical  organ  is  just  as  nicely 
constructed.     Indeed,  there  does  not  .seem  to  be  any  re- 
lation between  a  musical  ear  and  mere  delicacy  of  hear- 
ing. 

607.  If  these  considerations  be  admitted,  and  it  is  be- 
lieved no  one  will  deny  them,  then  we  must  admit  also 
that  the  soul-stirring  effects  of  harmony  depend  on  the  or- 
ganization of  the  brain,  and  not  on  that  of  the  ear.     And 
this  is  the  opinion  of  several  recent  physiologists  of  the 
first  class.     "  Speech,"  says  Broussais,  "  is  heard,  and  re- 
peated by  all  men,  who  are  not  deprived  of  their  auditory 
sense,  because  they  are  all  endowed  with  celebral  organi- 
zation, fit  to  procure  for  them  distinct  ideas  on  the  subject. 
Music,  when  viewed  as  a  mere  noise,  is  also  heard  by 
every  one ;  but  it  furnishes  ideas  sufficiently  clear  to  be 
reproduced   and  communicated  by  those  individuals  only, 
whose  frames  are  organized  in  a  manner  adapted  to  this 
kind  of  sensation." 

608.  Singular  Defects  in  certain  Ears. — The  late  Dr. 
Wollaston,  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1820,  de- 
scribes several  peculiarities  in  certain  ears,  which  appear 
to  have  no  defects  in  their  organization,  or  capacity  "of 
receiving  common  sounds,  not  even  in  the  perception  of 
musical   harmony,    but   are   insensible   to   certain   acute 
sounds.     The  writer  himself  found  that  his  ear  was  insen- 
sible to  any  sound  higher  than  six  octaves  above  the  mid- 
dle E  of  the  piano.     In  several  other  persons  he  found  a 
similar  insensibility  to  acute  sounds  of  a   certain  kind. 
Thus  some  could  not  hear  the  chirp  of  a  grasshopper; 


196  SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 

others  the  sharp  cry  of  a  bat ;  and  he  refers  to  one  who 
was  insensible  to  the  note  of  the  sparrow. 


ORGANS  OF  SMELL. 

609.  From  nearly  all  bodies  there  escape  certain  parti- 
cles, which  being  carried  along  by  the  air,  are  taken  into 
the  nostrils,  where  they  excite  the  sensation  which  we  call 
odor,  or  smell. 

All  bodies,  the  particles  of  which  are  fixed,  are  called 
inodorous,  that  is,  they  do  not  excite  the  sensation  of 
smell. 

Some  bodies,  it  is  well  known,  fill  the  air  to  gr£at  dis- 
tances with  their  odoriferous  particles,  while  in  others, 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  there  is  no  appreciable 
smell. 

Every  odoriferous  body  excites  a  sensation  peculiar  to 
itself,  and  hence  has  a  peculiar  odor. 

610.  We  cannot  describe  an   odor,  except  to   persons 
who   have   themselves   smelled  that  which  we  intend  to 
describe,  or  something  with  which  we  can  compare  it. 
Thus,  no  one  could  have  the  least  idea  of  the  smell  of 
camphor,  or   musk,  who   had  not   experienced  it.     The 
terms  aromatic,  or  sweet,  and  rancid,  or  fetid,  are  gene- 
ral terms  intended  to  include  odors  which  are  pleasant  or 
disagreeable,  and  in  these  respects  we  are  able  to  com- 
pare  odors,   so  far  as  to  specify  what  is  agreeable  and 
what  not. 

611.  It  is  exceedingly  difficult  for  us  to  conceive  how 
matter,  so   rare  and  minute  as  must  be  the  particles  of 
some  odoriferous  bodies,  can  excite  any  sensation  on  the 
animal  organs.     Thus   a  single  grain  of  musk  will  scent 
an  apartment  for  years,  and  still  not  loose  the  least  ap- 
preciable part  of  its   weight,   though  tried  by  the   nicest 
scales ;  and  it  is  said,  if  a  little  of  this  drug  be  put  into  a 


How  is  it  proved  that  the  appreciation  of  harmony  is  owing  to  effect  on 
the  brain,  and  not  merely  on  the  ear?  What  peculiarities  did  Dr.  Wol- 
laston  observe  with  respect  to  the  sense  of  hearing?  What  excites  the 
sense  of  smell?  What  bodies  are  inodorous?  What  is  said  of  the  de- 
scription of  odors  ? 


ORGANS   OF    SMELL.  397 

gold  snuff-box,  for  a  short  time,  and  then  the  box  be 
cleansed  with  soap  and  water,  still  it  will  retain  the  odor 
of  musk  for  years. 

611.  The  sense  of  smell  is  conveyed  to  the  brain  by  a 
pair  of  nerves  called  the  olfactory,  which  are  spread  on 
the  sides  of  the  nostrils. 

613.  Dr.  Magendie  says  that  the  olfactory  apparatus 
ought  to  be  described  as  a  sort  of  seive,  placed  in  the  pas- 
sage of  the  air,  as  it  is  introduced  into  the  chest,  and  inten- 
ded to  stop  every  foreign  body  that  may  be  mixed  with  the 
air,  particularly  the  odors. 

In  all  the  terrestrial  animals  the  cavity  of  the  nostrils  is 
divided  into  two  parts  by  a  vertical  partition,  the  whole 
interior  being  lined  by  a  soft  membrane,  called  the  schnei- 
derian,  or  pituitary  membrane.  This  is  constantly  kept 
moist  by  glands  which  secrete  a  fluid  for  that  purpose. 

This  membrane  is  well  supplied  with  blood-vessels,  and 
with  nerves  for  the  olfactory  pair.  These  nerves  in  carni- 
vorous animals  are  much  larger  than  in  those  that  live  on 
vegetables. 

614.  In  most  animals  the  bony  structure  of  this  part  of 
the  scull  is  exceedingly  intricate,  and  therefore  cannot  be 
described  to  the  understandings  of  those  who  have  no 
previous  knowledge  of  anatomy.     We  must  consequently 
refer  those  of  our  readers  who   wish  to  examine   this 
point  more  particularly,  to  some  treatise  on  that  subject. 
The  best  way,  however,  is  to  take  the   head  of  some 
quadruped,  and  with  a  fine  saw  divide  the  parts  both 
transversely  and  longitudinally.      Such  an   examination, 
assisted  by  a  good  description,  will  give  the  general  stu- 
dent all  the  information  he  may  want  on  this  subject  in  a" 
few  hours. 

615.  Olfactory  Nerves  of  the  Duck. — We  give  a  single 
longitudinal  figure  on  this  subject,  in  which  the  olfactory 
nerves  are  peculiarly  conspicuous,  both  from  their  size  and 
mode  of  distribution.     This  is  the  upper  mandible  ot  a 

17* 


198  SENSORIAL   FUNCTIONS. 

duck,  Fig.  119,  with  the  olfactories  laid  bare.     They  pass 
out  of  the  orbit  of  the  eye,  o,  in  two  large  branches,  an 

Fig.  119. 


upper  one,  u,  and  a  lower  one,  /,  the  branches  of  each  be- 
ing spread  over  the  contiguous  parts,  both  within  and 
without,  being  merely  protected  by  the  surface,  except  at 
the  extremity  of  the  beak,  where  there  is  a  horny  process, 
p,  for  this  purpose. 

616.  Jludubon's  Experiments  on  the  olfactory  Powers  of 
Vultures. — It  is  the  common  opinion  that  vultures,  and 
other  birds  of  prey,  have  the  power  of  smell  so  acute  that 
they  can  discover  by  this  means,  the  effluvia  of  a  carcass 
at  great  distances.     But  it  now  appears  from  the  observa- 
tions and  experiments  of  that  celebrated  ornithologist,  Mr. 
Audubon,  that  these  birds  in  reality  possess  this  sense  in 
a  degree  far  inferior  to  many  of  the  carnivorous  quadru- 
peds, and  that  so  far  from  guiding  thejn  to  their  prey,  at  a 
great  distance,  it  is  hardly  sufficient  to  indicate  its  presence 
when  near  at  hand. 

617.  The  following  experiments  appear  satisfactory  on 
this  subject :     Having  procured  the  skin  of  a  deer,  Mr. 
Audubon  stuffed  it  full  of  hay,  and  after  the  whole  had 
become  completely  dry  and  hard,  so  as  to  emit  no  smell, 
he  placed  it  in  the  middle  of  an  open  field,  laying  it  on 
the  back,  in  the  posture  of  a  dead  animal.     In  the  course 
of  a  few  minutes  he  saw  a  vulture  approaching-  for  a 
feast;    and   quite  unsuspicious  of  the   deception,  began 
the  attack  as  usual,  in  the  most  vulnerable  part.     But 
finding  nothing  to  his  taste,  he  next,  with  much  exertion, 
tore   open   the  seams  of  the   skin,  appearing   earnestly 
intent  on  getting  at  the  flesh,  which  he  expected  to  find 


ORGANS  OF  SMELL.  199 

within  and  of  the  absence  of  which,  not  one  of  his  senses, 
it  appears,  was  able  to  inform  him. 

618.  Finding  that  his  efforts  after  a  long  trial,  led  to  no 
satisfactory  results,  and  that  nothing  could  be  obtained  but 
a  bundle  of  hay,  the  bird  took  its  flight  in  search  of  other 
game ;  "  to  which,"  says  the  observer,  "  he  was  led  by 
sight  alone,  and  which  he  was  not  long  in  finding." 

619.  Another  experiment,  the  converse  of  this,  was 
next  tried.  A  large  dead  hog  was  concealed  in  a  nar- 
row and  winding  ravine,  about  twenty  feet  deeper  than 
the  surface  of  the  earth  around  it,  and  filled  with  briars 
and  high  canes.  This  was  done  in  the  month  of  July, 
in  a  tropical  climate,  where  decomposition  took  place 
rapidly.  Yet  although  many  vultures  were  seen,  from 
time  to  time  sailing  in  all  directions  over  the  spot,  none 
ever  discovered  it ;  but  in  the  meantime  several  dogs 
found  their  way  to  it,  before  which  it  was  fast  disap- 
pearing. 

620.  In  other   experiments  Mr.  Audubon  found  that 
young  vtiltures  confined  in  a  cage,  never  seemed  to  per- 
ceive that  their  food  was  near  them,  until  it  was  seen.     It 
therefore  appears  that  vultures  are  guided  to  their  food  by 
the  acuteness  of  their  visual,  and  not  by  their  olfactory  or- 
gans, as  has  heretofore  been  supposed.     The   above  re- 
sults have   been   fully   verified   by  Mr.  Bachman,  and  a 
detailed  account  thereof  published  in  London's  Magazine 
of  Natural  History. 

621.  Organ  of  Smell  in  Fishes. — It  has  been  doubted 
by  some  physiologists,  whether  water  is  capable  of  con- 
veying   odoriferous   particles,  and  consequently,  whether 
fish  had  any  use  for  olfactory  organs.     But  almost  every 
angler  knows  that  at  least,  with  some  sorts  of  fish,  he  has 
much   better  luck  when  his  bait  is  scented  with   some 
strong  odoriferous  drug,  as  assafoetida,  musk,  or  camphor. 
It  is  well   known,  indeed,  both  by  other  experiments,  as 
well  as  by  dissection,  that  fishes  are  endowed  with  organs 
of  smell. 


What  were  the  results  of  Audubon's  experiments  on  the  smell  of  vul- 
tures ?    What  is  said  of  the  organs  of  smell  in  fishes  ? 


200  SENSORIAL    FUNCTIONS. 


ORGANS    OF    TASTE. 


622.  It  is  well  known  that  the  tongue  is  the  principal 
organ  of  taste ;  though  the  lips,  the  palate,  the  internal 
surfaces  of  the  cheeks,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  esopha- 
gus, all  participate  in  this  favorite  sense. 

623.  The  organs  of  this  sense  are  much  the  most  abun- 
dant on  the  tongue,  where  they  may  be  seen,  especially 
toward  the  end,  in  the  form  of  papillce  or  minute  elevated 
protuberances. 

624.  If  these  be  touched  with  a  fluid  that  is  strong  to 
the  taste,  such  as  vinegar,  they  will  be  seen  to  rise  by  the 
stimulus,  an  effect  which  probably  accompanies  the  sensa- 
tion of  taste  at   all  times. 

625.  The  lingual  nerve,  or  nerve  of  the  tongue,  is  that 
which  is  chiefly  concerned  in  conveying  the  sense  of  taste 
to  the  brain.    But  Magendie  says,  that  after  the  most  care- 
ful examination  of  this  part  by  dissection,  assisted  by  the 
most  delicate  instruments,  he  was  unable  to  trace  these 
nerves  to  the  papillae.    Still  the  sense  of  taste  must  be  at- 
tributed to  the  filaments  of  this  nerve. 

626.  The  primary  use  of  taste  is  to  guide  animals  in 
the  selection  of  their  food,  and  warn  them  against  the  in- 
troduction of  noxious  articles  into  the  stomach. 

627.  In  all  the  inferior  animals,  this  sense,  together 
with  that  of  smell,  is  generally  a  sufficient  guard  against 
the  use  of  noxious  food.     In  these,  therefore,  the  original 
design  of  taste  is  still  answered.     But  in  man,  this  sense 
has  been  so  abused  and  perverted,  by  the  introduction  of 
stimulants,  and  the  endless  admixture  of  different  articles 
of  food,  that  the  simple  action  of  this  part  seems  to  have 
been     superseded     almost    entirely    by    acquired    taste. 
Hence  man  in  his  present  state  of  civilization  and  luxuri- 
ousness,  has  no  sense  by  which  he   can   determine,  with 
any  degree  of  certainty,  what   is  wholesome   and  what 
is  poisonous.     In  the  savage  state,  the  sense  of  taste  and 


What  parts  of  insects  constitute  the  organ  of  smell?  Where  is  the  or- 
gan of  taste  situated  ?  What  is  the  primary  use  of  taste  ?  In  what  ani- 
mals is  this  design  still  answered  ?  What  is  said  of  the  power  of  man  to 
detect  poisonous  articles  by  the  taste  ? 


ORGANS   OF   TOUCH.  201 

smell  are  much  less  vitiated,  than  in  civilized  man ;  and 
hence  the  men  of  the  forest,  it  is  said,  are  guided,  in  a 
considerable  degree  by  these  senses,  in  the  choice  of  their 
food,  especially  in  times  of  scarcity,  when  they  are  obliged 
to  roam  in  search  of  new  articles. 


ORGANS  OF  TOUCH. 

628.  By  the  sense  of  touch,  we  are  enabled  to  know  the 
external  properties  of  bodies. 

Physiologists  make  a  distinction  between  tact  and  touch. 
Tact,  with  some  few  exceptions,  is  generally  diffused 
through  all  our  organs,  and  particularly  over  the  skin.  It 
exists  in  all  animals,  while  touch  exists  chiefly  in  the 
fingers  of  man,  in  the  antenna  of  insects,  and  in  the  ndses 
of  certain  quadrupeds. 

629.  In  the  exercise  of  these  functions,  tact  is  considered 
passive,  as  when  any  part  of  the  system  comes  into  contact 
with  another  body,  a  sensation  of  its  presence  is  given, 
without  the  exercise  of  volition.     Oa  the  contrary,  touch 
is  active,  and  is  exercised  voluntarily  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
veying to  the  mind  a  knowledge  of  the  qualities,  or  proper- 
ties of  the  surfaces  of  bodies ;  as  when  we  feel  a  piece  of 
cloth   to  ascertain  its  qualities,  or  a  polished  surface  to 
prove  its  smoothness. 

630.  Anatomy  of  the  Skin. — The  sensation  of  tact  and 
touch  is  conveyed  to  the  brain  by  means  of  nerves  situated 
in  the  skin. 

The  skin  consists  of  three  parts,  called  the  cuticle,  or 
epidermis  ;  the  rete  mucosum  ;  and  the  corium,  or  cutis 
vera,  or  true  skin. 

The  cuticle  is  the  external  layer.  In  its  structure  it  is 
membranous  and  dry,  having  neither  nerves,  veins,  nor 
arteries.  It  has,  therefore,  no  sensation,  its  office  being 
merely  to  protect  the  true  skin  from  external  injury. 

What  is  the  difference  between  touch  and  tact?  In  the  exercise  of  these 
functions,  which  is  active  and  which  passive?  How  are  these  sensations 
conveyed  to  the  brain?  What  parts  compose  the  skin,  and  what  their 
names  ?  What  is  the  cuticle  and  where  is  it  situated  ?  What  is  the  use 
of  the  cuticle  ? 


202  SENSORIAL  FUNCTIONS, 

The  cuticle  is  that  thin  membrane  which  is  raised  by  a 
blister,  and  which,  when  removed,  leaves  the  true  skin 
exposed.  The  pain-  consequent  upon  such  exposure,  is 
the  best  test  of  the  importance  of  the  office  which  this 
membrane  performs.  It  is  full  of  minute  pores,  through 
which  the  perspiration  escapes. 

The  next  layer  of  the  skin  is  the  rete  mucosum,  or 
mucus  web.  It  is  in  this  that  the  coloring  matter  of  the 
different  races  of  men  exists.  In  the  African  it  is  black, 
in  the  American  and  European,  white,  and  in  American 
Indians,  copper-colored. 

The  corium,  or  true  skin  lies  next.  This  consists  of  a 
tissue  of  dense  fibres,  intersecting  each  other  in  all  direc- 
tions, the  nerves  and  blood-vessels  passing  between  them. 
It  is  a  thick  and  firm  covering  for  the  protection  of  the 
flesh,  and  the  larger  nerves  and  blood-vessels,  some  of 
which  are  immediately  under  it. 

631.  The  composition  of  the  true  skin  is  chiefly  gelatine, 
and  hence  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glue,  and  the 
substance   called   sizing,  used  by  paper-makers.     When 
this  gelatine  is  hardened  by  tanning,  the  skin  becomes 
leather,  and  is  used  for  shoes  and  boots.     In  addition  to 
these,  there  is  the  corpus  papillarce,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered  as   a  part  of  the  true  skin,  being  formed  by  the 
extremities  of  the  nerves  and  vessels,  which  have  passed 
through  that  part.      These  are  little  protuberances,  and 
are  seen  distinctly  in  the  true  skin,  after  the  cuticle  has 
been  removed  by  a  blister.     When  the  parts  are  relaxed, 
they  are   not   so    apparent,  but   become   erect,  rising  a 
little  above  the  surface,  when  the  skin  is  stimulated,  or 
touched. 

632.  It  appears  to  be  in  these  papillae  that  the  sense  of 
touch  resides,  these  being  furnished  with  nerves   appro- 
priated to  this  particular  sensation.     In  most  cases  the 
ends  of  the  fingers,  but  sometimes  the  lips,  are  employed  to 
convey  information  by  the  touch. 

In  what  part  of  the  skin  do  the  colors  of  the  different  races  lie  ?  What 
is  the  corium  and  where  is  it  situated  ?  Where  is  the  sense  of  touch 
situated  ? 


PART  VI. 


MENTAL  AND'PHYSICAL   EXERCISE. 


THE    BRAIN. 


633.  Preparatory  to  treating  of  the  sensorial  functions, 
we  gave  a  summary  account  of  the  nervous  system,  as  it 
exists  in  various  animals,  with  a  figure  of  the  ganglion ; 
reserving  more  particular  descriptions  of  the  brain  and  its 
functions  as  they  are  found  in  the  human  species,  for  the 
purpose  of  connecting  them  with  observations  on  physical 
and  mental  exercise. 

634.  Size  of  the  Braii\. — Aristotle  and  Pliny  both  as- 
sert that  the  brain  of  man  is  not  only  comparatively,  but 
absolutely,  larger  than  that  of  any  other  animal.     At  the 
present  time,  only  two  exceptions   to  this  assertion  are 
known.    The  brain  of  the  whale,  and  that  of  the  elephant, 
are  larger  in  bulk  than  that  of  the  human  species.     Com- 
paratively, however,  the  human  brain  is  much  larger  than 
that  of  any   other   known    animal.     By    analogy,  there- 
fore, we  might  infer  that  in  man,  the  largest  development 
of  this  organ  would,  other  circumstances  being  equal,  in- 
sure the  most  capacious  intellect,  and  perhaps  this  may  be 
considered  as  generally  true.     Says  Magendie,  "  the  vol- 
ume of  the  brain  is  generally  in  direct  proportion  to  the 


What  is  said  of  the  absolute  size  of  the  human  brain  ?     What  is  said 
of  the  comparative  size  of  this  organ  in  man  ? 


204 


MENTAL    AND    PHYSICAL    EXERCISE 


capacity  of  the  mind."  We  ought,  not  to  suppose, 
however,  that  every  man  having  a  large  head  is  necessa- 
rily a  person  of  superior  intelligence,  for  there  are  many 
causes  of  an  augmentation  of  the  volume  of  the  head 
beside  the  size  of  the  brain  ;  but  it  is  rarely  found  that  a 
man  distinguished  by  his  mental  faculties  has  not  a  large 
head.  The  only  way  of  estimating  the  volume  of  the 
brain  in  a  living  person,  is  to  measure  the  dimensions  of 
the  scull.  Every  other  means,  even  that  proposed  by 
Camper,  is  uncertain. 

635.  Dimensions  of  the  Brain.— Tlie  whole  substance. 
of  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow  are  continuous,  forming 
but  a  single  piece.     But  the  different  parts  of  this  organ 
are  supposed  to  perform  different  functions,  and  they  pre- 
sent also  a  variety  of  appearances,  and  hence  have  received 
different  names. 

636.  That  portion  of  the  brain  which  fills  the  upper 
part  of  the   scull,  and  extends  from  the  orbit  of  the  eye 
to  the  most  prominent  parts  of  the  hind  head,  is  called  the 
cerebrum,  or  encephalon. 

Fig.  120. 


Is  there  any  proportion  between  the  size  of  the  brain  and  the  intellect  ? 


PHRENOLOGY.  205 

637.  This  is  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  longitudinal- 
ly, called  the  right  and  left  hemispheres  of  the  brain  h  h  h, 
Fig.  120,  which  represents  the   right   hemisphere.     The 
medulla  oblongata,  m,  or  oblong  marrow,  is  that  portion 
of  the  spinal  cord  which  is  contained  within  the  scull.    Its 
continuation  downward,  s,  is  called  the  medulla  spinalis, 
or  spinal  marrow.     The  part  c,  is  the  cerebellum,  or  little 
brain,  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  the  cerebrum,  above 
described.     The    tree-like    figure,  shown  by  dividing  it 
through  the  centre,  is  called  the  dbor  vita,  or  tree  of  life. 
The  corpus  callosum,  or  hard  body,  q,  is  a  white  medullary 
part,  which  joins  the  two  hemispheres  together  ;  v,  marks 
one  of  the  lateral  ventricles  of  the  brain.     The  pineal 
gland,  p,  was  supposed  by  Des  Cartes  to  be  the  seat  of 
the  soul. 

638.  It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  work  to  enter  into 
a  minute  description  of  the  diiferent  parts  of  the  brain ; 
oar  object  being  to  give  a  general,  rather  than  a  particular 
account  of  its  structure  and  functions. 

639.  All  the  nerves  are  considered  as  originating  either 
directly  or  indirectly  from  the  medullary  substance,  that  is, 
from  the  medulla    oblongata,    or  the  spinal  cord.     Those 
which   pass  through  the  bones  of  the  scull,  are,  however, 
called  cerebral  nerves,  while  those  which  arise  from  the 
spinal  marrow,  are  called  spinal  nerves.     Among  the  first 
are  the  optic  and  olfactory  nerves. 

640.  The  brain  receives  a  larger  quantity  of  blood 
than  any  other  organ  of  the  same  size.  The  arteries  for 
this  purpose  are  four  in  number,  and  are  supposed  to  con- 
vey to  the  brain  an  eighth  part  of  all  the  blood  which 
flows  from  the  heart. 


PHRENOLOGY. 


641.  Physiologists  have  been  at  great  pains  to  ascertain 
what  parts  of  the  brain  are  the  particular  instruments  of 

What  part  of  the  brain  is  the  cerebrum  ?  What  are  the  hemispheres  of 
the  brain  ?  What  is  the  medulla  oblongata  ?  What  does  the  continuation 
of  this  part  form  ?  What  is  the  situation  of  the  cerebellum  ?  From  what 
parts  do  the  nerves  arise  ?  What  is  said  of  the  quantity  of  blood  sent  to 
the  brain? 

18 


206  MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

the  different  functions  of  life,  as  those  of  sensation,  of  intel- 
lect, of  voluntary  motion,  and  of  the  passions.  But  aside 
from  the  more  recent  investigations  of  phrenologists,  and 
the  light  which  that  science  has  been  supposed  to  have 
thrown  upon  this  most  difficult  of  subjects,  it  must  be  con- 
fessed that  these  attempts  have  not  been  crowned  with 
much  success.  All  that  experiments  and  observations  ap- 
pear heretofore  to  have  determined  on  this  point  is,  that 
the  hemispheres  of  the  brain  are,  the  instruments  of  the 
intellectual  faculties ;  the  central  parts  of  the  brain  '  and 
the  medulla  oblongata  are  those  principally  concerned  in 
sensation,  and  that  the  cerebellum  is  the  chief  sensorial 
agent  in  voluntary  motion. 

642.  Phrenology  ivants  more  Facts. — With  respect  to 
the  foundation  of  phrenology,  as  being  based  upon  the 
anatomical  structure  and  natural  divisions  of  the  brain,  the 
author  of  this  work  has  nothing  to  offer,  having  had  no 
recent  opportunities  of  examining  that  organ  with  such 
views.  Nor  will  he  venture  to  affirm  that  this  science 
will  not  ultimately  be,  in  one  way  or  another,  of  some  use 
to  mankind.  But  he  must  be  allowed  to  say,  that  so  far 
as  the  principles  of  this  science  have  yet  been  developed, 
its  practical  usefulness  in  directing  parents  to  educate  or 
employ  their  children  according  to  their  different  capaci- 
ties or  inclinations;  or  of  enabling  them  to  counteract 
their  evil  propensities ;  or  even  of  pointing  out  with  any 
degree  of  certainty,  the  peculiar  intellectual  powers  of  an 
adult  by  an  examination  of  the  cranium,  phrenology  has 
not,  at  least  in  this  country,  answered  the  former  promises 
and  expectations  of  its  advocates.  It  is  true,  that  George 
Combe,  Esq.,  of  Edinburgh,  and  others,  have  collected  to- 
gether many  facts  on  this  subject,  from  which  it  would 
appear  that  this  science  might,  with  certain  modifications, 
be  ultimately  placed  on  a  permanent  foundation.  But  a 
multitude  of  facts,  and  severe  critical  observations,  are 
still  wanting,  to  induce  the  great  mass  of  well-educated 


What  part  of  the  brain  is  the  instrument  of  the  intellectual  faculties? 
What  part  of  the  brain  is  chiefly  concerned  in  sensation?  What  part  is 
the  agent  of  voluntary  motion  ? 


PHRENOLOGY.  207 

people  to  form  their  opinions  on  a  matter  which  is  held 
out  to  them  to  be  of  such  high  importance ;  and  more 
still,  to  induce  them  to  trust  to  its  guidance,  the  educa- 
tion of  their  children  or  any  of  the  important  concerns  of 
life. 

643.  Dr.  Rogers  opinion. — But  without  making  farther 
observations  of  our  own,  we  will  merely  cite  the  opinions 
of   two   or   three   individuals,  which  have   been  formed 
with  a  knowledge  of  the  facts,  and  whose  decisions  are 
not  of  less  weight  than  those  of  any  contemporary  wri- 
ters. 

644.  "  Although,"  says  Dr.  Roget,  "  the  brain  is  con- 
structed with  evident  design,  and  composed  of  a  number  of 
curiously-wrought  parts,  we  are  utterly  unable  to  penetrate 
the  intention  with  which  they  are  formed,  or  to  perceive 
the  slightest  correspondence  which  their  configuration  can 
have  with  the  functions  they  respectively  perform.     The 
map  of  regions  which  modern  physiologists  have  traced 
on  the  surface  of  the  head,  and  which  they  suppose  to  have 
relation  to  different  faculties  and  propensities,  does  not 
agree  either  with  the  natural  divisions  of  the  brain,  nor 
with  the   metaphysical  classification  of  mental  phenom- 


645.  Dr.  Bostock's  Sentiments. — "  The  view/'  says 
Dr.  Bostock,  "  which  I  have  taken  of  the  connexion  that 
subsists  between  the  physical  structure  of  the  nervous 
system,  and  the  mental  faculties,  naturally  brings  me  to 
a  subject,  which  has  of  late  attracted  a  considerable 
degree  of  attention  among  anatomists  and  physiologists, 
namely,  the  dependance  of  the  character  and  disposition 
upon  the  peculiar  shape  and  organization  of  the  brain. 
Certain  facts,  which  seem  to  favor  this  opinion,  had 
long  been  noticed  ;  persons  of  observation  were  in  the 
habit  of  associating  the  idea  of  superior  intellect  with  a 
capacious  and  prominent  forehead,  while  the  contrary 
form  was  equally  conceived  to  indicate  a  deficiency  of 

*  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology.  Bndgewater  Treatise.  Vol.  ii.,  p. 
565.  London,  1835. 

It  is  proper  to  remark,  that  Dr.  Roget  is  the  author  of  tke  article 
"  Cranioscopy,"  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  and  therefore  has  not 
given  this  opinion  without  knowledge. 


208         MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

mental  powers.  *  *  *  *  When  the  sculptors  of 
antiquity  formed  the  statues  of  their  gods,  or  heroes,  to 
which  they  were  desirous  of  imparting  a  character  of  high 
intelligence,  they  endeavored  to  accomplish  this  by  giving 
a  peculiar  form  to  the  head."  *  * 

646.  "  The  arguments  which  have  been  urged  in  favor 
of  the  science  of  cranioscopy,"*  continues   Dr.  Bostock, 
"  are  partly  anatomical  and  partly  physiological.     In  the 
first  place  it  is  said,  that  the  brain  exhibits  a  very  elabo- 
rate structure,  and  a  very  complicated  organization,  and 
it  is  therefore   reasonable   to   conclude,  that  its  different 
parts    must  be   subservient  to   the  exercise    of   different 
functions." 

647.  "  Secondly,  both  metaphysicians  and  physiologists 
have  been  in  the  habit  of  referring  all  the   impressions 
which  we  receive  through  the  intervention  of  the  nerves, 
to  some  central  part  of  the  brain,  but  the  great  diversity 
of  opinion  which  exists  respecting  the  part  which  ought  to 
be  regarded  as  this  common  centre,  affords  us  at  least  a 
strong  presumption  of  its  non-existence,  while  on  the  con- 
trary, if  we  suppose  that  there  actually  is  such  a  central 
spot,  we  are  at  a  loss  to  assign  any  use  to  the  remainder  of 
the  brain." 

"  648.  Thirdly,  we  are  in  possession  of  a  number  of  ob- 
servations upon  the  partial  loss  of  the  mental  faculties,  in 
consequence  of  disease  or  injury  of  the  brain,  and  although 
we  are  not  able  to  trace  out  the  connexion  between  the 
situation  of  the  injury  received,  and  the  defect  of  the  men- 
tal powers,  yet  it  favors  the  opinion  that  these  faculties  are 
distributed  over  the  different  parts,  of  which  the  brain  is 
constituted. 

649.  "  Fourthly,  the  analogy  of  the  nerves  that  are 
connected  with  the  external  organ  of  sense  is  adduced  by 
the  cranioscopists  in  favor  of  their  doctrine.  Each  of  these 
nerves,- in  conveying  their  respective  impressions,  must  ex- 
ercise a  different  office,  and  in  the  same  way,  the  different 
convolutions  of  the  brain  are  supposed  to  be  the  organs  of 
the  respective  mental  functions. 

*  Dr.  Bostock  remarks,  that  this  being  the  term  originally  employed, 
and  being  much  more  appropriate  than  phrenology,  he  continues  to  use  it 


PHRENOLOGY.  209 

650.  "  Fifthly,  it  is  argued  that  the  state  of  brain,  in  re- 
gard to  its  perfection,  and  full  development,  corresponds 
to  the  state  of  the  mental  faculties  at  the  different  periods 
of  life,  and  also  to  their  degree  of  perfection  among  the 
inferior  animals,  so  as  to  indicate  a  necessary  connection 
between  these  circumstances. 

651.  "  Sixthly,  the  brains  of  different  individuals  actual- 
ly differ  in  the  proportionate  form  and  size  of  their  parts, 
and  it  is  therefore  reasonable  to  presume,  that  this  may  be 
the  cause  of  the  difference  which  is  admitted  to  exist  in  the 
faculties  of  different  individuals. 

652.  "  Seventhly,  the  exercise  of  the  mental  powers, 
like  that    of    the   physical   functions,   is    attended   with 
fatigue  ;  but  it  is  found  by  experience,  that  the  fatigue  only 
extends  to  that  particular  power  which  has  been  exercised ; 
it  may,  therefore,  be  presumed  that  its  action  is  confined  to 
a  certain  portion  of  the  brain  only. 

653.  "  Eighthly,  proceeding  upon  the  principle,  that  the 
dispositions  and  mental  faculties  are,  to  a  certain  extent, 
innate,  and  observing  that  they  exist  in  different  individu- 
als in  different  proportions,  it  follows  that  they  must  be 
attached  to  different  organs. 

654.  "  The  above,"  says  Dr.  Bostock,  "  appears  to  me 
to  exhibit  a  fair  statement  of  the  nature  of  the  arguments 
which  have   been   employed,   to   prove    the    antecedent 
probability  of  the  doctrine  of  cranioscopy.     But  its  ad- 
vocates are  aware  that  its  merits  must  principally  rest 
upon  the  degree  in  which  it  is  found  to  correspond  with 
well-ascertained  facts,  and  correct  observation,  and  with 
the   power  which  it    actually   affords  us  of  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  the  character  and  disposition  of  individu- 
als, by   an  examination  of  the  scull.     It  is,  therefore,  by 
an  appeal  to  experience,  that  the  supporters  of  cranios- 
copy,  and  Dr.   Spurzheim  in  particular,  attempt  to  es- 
tablish their  opinion,  and  they  have  accordingly  brought 
forward    a   number   of  facts   of   this  description,  which 
are  supposed   to  form   a  sufficiently  firm  basis  for  their 
system.      They    consist   of  the   results   which    were  ob- 
tained by  examining  the  heads  of  various  individuals  of 
all  ages,  ranks,  and  conditions,  minutely  noticing  the  de- 
viations from   average   form,  especially  with   regard   to 
the  size  and  situation  of  the  eminences,  or  .protuberances 

18* 


210  MENTAL    AND    PHYSICAL    EXERCISE 

which  they  exhibited.  The  examination  has  also  been 
extended  to  the  inferior  animals  and  the  same  principles 
have  been  applied  to  their  sculls,  both  as  to  what  respects 
their  general  form,  and  the  proportionate  size  of  their 
individual  parts,  whether  indicating  a  generic,  or  an  indi- 
vidual difference. 

655.  "  In  estimating  the  value  of  these  arguments,  1 
shall   arrange  them  in  two  divisions,  as  they   relate  to 
general   considerations   of  probability,  or   as  they  depend 
more  upon  particular  facts. 

656.  "  And  with  respect  to  the  first  point,  I  think  it  will 
be  admitted  that  there  is  none  of  them  that  possesses  more 
than  an  indirect  application  to  the  question  in  discussion. 
Admitting  that  the  perfect  organization  of  the  brain  is  a 
necessary   intermedium   for   the   exercise   of  the   mental 
powers,  we  may  conclude,  that  every  part  of  this  organ 
must  have  a  necessary  connection  with  the  exercise  of 
these  powers,  as  every  part  of  the  eye  and  the  ear  has  a 
reference  to  the  production  of  vision  and  of  sound.     In 
consequence  of  our  knowledge  of  the  physical  laws  of 
light,  and  the  undulation  of  the  air,  we  are  enabled  to 
trace  out  the  mode  in  which  the  several  parts  of  the  eye, 
and  of  the  ear,  co-operate  to  produce  the  ultimate  effect. 
Had  we  the  same  knowledge  of  the  mode  in  which  the 
mind  operates  upon  the  brain,  we  should  probably  have 
it  in  our  power  to  detect  the  same  kind  of  co-operation 
of  all  its  parts  and  structures  to  the  production  of  percep- 
tion and  thought.     But  on  this  point  we  are  in  total  igno- 
rance, and  therefore,  although  wTe  may  go  so  far  as  to 
assert,  that  a  perfect  brain,  in  a  certain  sense,  is  essential 
to  a.  perfect  mind,  we  are  unable  to  say  in  what  way 
it  is  so. 

657.  "  The  only  anatomical  argument  which  is  of  so 
tangible  a  nature  as  to  allow  of  anything  approaching  to 
direct  deduction,  is  derived  from   a  consideration   of  the 
degree  in  which  an  injury  of  the  brain  produces  a  cor- 
responding  injury    of    the   mental    powers.      Upon   this 
point  I  have  already  stated  my  opinion,  and  I  have  only 
to  add,  that  while  the  connection  is  not  of  that  nature 
which  indicates  the   relation   of  cause  and   effect,  so  I 
should   be   still   less   disposed   to    allow,   that    the   facts 
which  we  possess  are  of  that  distinct  and  direct  nature, 


PHRENOLOGY  211 

which  can  enable  us  to  connect  particular  injuries  of  the 
brain  with  corresponding  injuries  of  particular  faculties. 

658. . "  The  position  that  the  size  of  an  organ  is  an  indi- 
cation of  the  degree  of  its  power,  or  capacity,  a  position 
which  may  be  regarded  as  almost  the  fundamental  princi- 
ple on  which  the  whole  doctrine  rests,  is  in  direct  contra- 
diction to  fact.  To  revert  to  the  case  of  the  eye  ;  it  may 
be  asserted  that  the  perfection  of  this  organ,  either  when 
considered  with  respect  to  the  different  species  of  animals, 
or  to  the  different  individuals  of  the  same  species,  does  not 
bear  the  least  relation  to  its  size,  but  depends  entirely 
upon  the  nature  of  its  organization,  and  except  in  those 
cases  where  the  exercise  of  an  organ  is  connected  with 
mechanical  force,  as  in  muscular  contraction,  bulk  has  no 

relation  to  the  perfection  of  a  part. 

*          *          *  ****** 

659.  "  And  even  were  it  proved,  as  a  general  principle, 
that  distinct  parts  of  the  brain  were  appropriated  to  dis- 
tinct mental  functions,  we  may  still  be  permitted  to  doubt 
whether  the  cranioscopists  have  been  fortunate  in  their 
division  and  appropriation  of  the  functions  which  are  sup- 
posed to  possess  these  distinct  localities.  If  we  consider 
the  subject  theoretically,  we  might  presume  that  there 
would  be  a  separate  organ  corresponding  to  each  of  the 
external  senses,  as  the  impressions  are  themselves  distinct 
in  their  nature,  and  might  be  supposed  to  require  some 
different  modification  of  the  nervous  matter  for  their  per- 
ception. And  again,  with  respect  to  the  intellectual  pow- 
ers, there  are  some  which  appear  so  distinct  from  the 
others,  that  we  might  apply  to  them  the  same  mode  of 
reasoning,  and  suppose  it  probable  that  they  might  possess 
their  appropriate  organs.  The  faculty  of  memory  might 
be  supposed  to  require  a  different  modification  of  the  nerv- 
ous power  from  that  of  the  imagination ;  and  this  again 
from  that  of  abstraction  or  volition.  But  we  do  not  ob- 
serve any  classification  or  division  of  this  kind  in  the 
faculties  that  are  enumerated  by  Dr.  Spurzheim,  or  his 
disciples.  Some  of  them  are  complex  feelings,  resulting 
from  the  union  of  primary  perceptions  with  ideas  ;  others 
appear  to  be  a  combination  of  ideas  only ;  some  may  be 
regarded  as  the  obvious  result  of  association,  and  others 


212         MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

again   as  the  effect  of  association  operating  through  the 
intervention  of  education,  or  of  the  accidental  circumstan 
ces  in  which  the  individual  has  been  placed. 

660.  "  And  with  respect  to  what  may  be  regarded  as 
the  practical  application  of  the  art,  or  science  of  cranios- 
copy ;  it  may  be  objected,  that  the  convolutions  of  the 
cerebrum  are  not  what  one  should  expect  to  be  the  seat 
of  the  ultimate  operations  of  the  organ.     They   are  not 
the  part  in  which  we  behold  that  elaborate  and  compli- 
cated structure,  the  existence  of  which  has  been  supposed 
to  form  so  powerful  an  argument  in  favor  of  the  doctrine, 
while  this  view  of  the  subject  still  leaves  unexplained  the 
uses  of  the  more  minutely  organized  parts,  that  are  situa- 
ted in  the  interior  of  the  brain." 

661.  Dr.  Bostock  further  remarks,  that  the  question 
whether  this  science  has  any  foundation,  or  not,  must  be 
decided  by  an  appeal  to  facts.     "  These  facts  are  of  two 
kinds,   almost   exactly   coinciding   in  their   object.     We 
must  obtain  sculls  that  are  marked  by  some  peculiarity 
of   form  and  shape,   and  must  then   endeavor  to   learn 
what  was  the  natural  character  of  the  subject ;  or  we 
must  take  the  cases  of  those  who  have  shown  some  deci- 
ded peculiarity  of  disposition  and  character,  and  examine 
the  figure  of  their  sculls.     A  sufficient   number  of  these 
observations,    carefully  made,    and  impartially  recorded, 
cannot  fail  to  decide  the  question  whether  there  be  any 
ground   for  the  doctrine  of  the  appropriation  of  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  brain  to  distinct  faculties ;  and  more 
particularly,  whether  wTe  have  it  in  our  power  to  ascertain 
their  seat  by  an  external  examination  of  the  cranium.    On 
this  point,  I  must  give  it  as  the  conviction  of  my  mind, 
that  the  facts  hitherto  adduced,  are  altogether  inadequate 
to  the  end  proposed  ;  that  they  are  frequently  of  doubtful 
authority,  and  of  incorrect  application ;  and  that,  nothing 
but  the  love  of  novelty,   and  the   eagerness  with  which 
the  mind  embraces  whatsoever  promises  to  open   a  new 
avenue  to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  could  have  led 
men  of  talents  and  information  to  place  any  confidence  in 
them."* 

•  An  Elementary  System  of  Physiology,  by  John  Bostock,  M.  D.,  F.  R. 
S.,  L.  8.  G.  S.  H.  S.  M.  R.  I.,  London,  vol.  iii.,  p.  264-5-6. 


PHRENOLOGY.  213 

662.  We  have  added  this  long  extract,  from  one  of  the 
highest  physiological  authorities  of  the  age,  to  that  of  Dr. 
Roget,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  those  into  whose  hands 
this  volume  may  happen  to  fall,  that  there  is  still  a  doubt 
among  the  most  competent  judges  in  Europe,  not  only 
whether  phrenology  is  likely  to  be  of  any  practical  utility 
to  man,  but  even  whether  it  has  any  foundation  in  nature. 
At  the  same  time,  as  it  is  acknowledged  by  the  advocates 
of  its  doctrines  themselves,  that  it  must  stand  or  fall  on 
the  facts  which  can  be  adduced  for  or  against  it,  we  can 
see  no  objection  to  their  accumulation,  provided,  in  the 
meantime,  the  public  curiosity  can  be  so  suspended  as  to 
prevent  the  waste  of  too  much  time  in  studying  it,  or  the 
adoption  of  a  system  which  does  not  at  present  appear  to 
be  of  any  great  practical  use  to  the  rising  generation, 
whatever  it  may  ultimately  become. 

663  Double  Organs  of  the  Mammalia. — In  man,  ^as 
well  as  in  all  the  other  vertebrated  animals,  every  organ 
subservient  to  the  sensorial  functions,  and  most  of  those 
concerned  in  voluntary  action,  are  double  ;  that  is,  there 
is  a  symmetrical  organ  on  each  side,  whose  powers  and 
functions  are  exactly  alike.  Thus,  we  have  two  eyes, 
two  ears,  two  arms,  legs,  &c.  The  same  law  holds 
with  respect  to  the  brain,  this  part,  as  we  have  shown, 
being  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  called  the  right  and 
left  hemispheres ;  so  that,  in  fact,  we  have  two  brains, 
and  a  double  set  of  nerves,  as  well  as  double  eyes  and 
ears. 

664.  In  the  sensorial  functions,  these  two  parts  consti- 
tute, in  action,  only  a  single  organ  of  sensation  ;  thus  the 
action  of  the  two  eyes  convey  to  the  mind  only  a  single 
impression,  and  of  the  two  ears  only  a  single  sound. 
This  effect  is  produced  by  a  free  communication  which 
exists  between  the  two  divisions  of  the  brain,  by  means 
of  medullary  substances,  called  the  commissures  of  the 
brain,  and  which  pass  directly  from  one  hemisphere  to 
the  other.  The  principal  commissure  is  the  corpus  col- 
losum,  shown  at  g,  Fig.  120.  In  the  functions  of  most 


What  is  said  of  the  doable  organs  of  the  sensorial  and  muscular  pow- 
ers ?     In  sensorial  action,  is  the  effect  double  or  single  ? 


214         MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

of  the  voluntary  powers,  no  necessary  use  appears  to  be 
made  of  this  communication ;  since  we  can  employ  the 
muscles  of  one  side  without  the  necessary  action  of  those 
of  the  other,  or  we  can  use  both  of  them  at  the  same 
time.  Thus  we  can  throw  up  one  hand  or  both,  at  the 
same  instant. 

665.  Insensibility  of  the  Brain. — The   brain,  as  we 
have  seen,  is  the  source  of  every  sensation  ;  the  common 
sensorium  through  which  we  derive  every  pleasure,  and 
feel  every  pain.     And  yet  this  wonderful  organ,  so  sensi- 
ble to  mechanical  impressions,  that  a  little  blow,  even 
through  the  bones  of  the  scull,  will  often  produce  instant 
death,  is  itself  entirely  insensible  !     "  That  part  of  the 
brain,"  says  Sir  Charles  Bell,  "  which  if  disturbed  or  dis- 
eased, takes  away  consciousness,  is  as  insensible  as  the 
leather  of  our  shoe  !"     It  may  be  touched,  or  a  portion 
of  it  torn  off,  without  sensation,  and  yet  to  its  proper  office 
it  Is  exquisitely  sensible. 

THE    MUSCLES. 

666.  We  have  designedly  omitted  to  treat  of  the  mus- 
cles,  until  we  came  to  that  part  of  our  work  where  they 
could  with  propriety  be  described  in  connection  with  an 
account  of  their  functions,  the  exercise  of  which  is  one  of 
the  principal  means  by  which  we  are  to  continue  in  the 
enjoyment  of  health,  both  corporeal  and  mental. 

667.  The  muscles  are  the  red  fibrous  parts  of  animals, 
which   are  situated  immediately  under  the   skin.     They 
constitute  all  those  parts  commonly  called  flesh.     Their 
number  in  the  human  body  is  about  400.     They  consist 
of  distinct  portions*    or  separate  bundles  of  fibres,  which 
are  susceptible  of  contraction   and  relaxation,  at  the  will 
of  the  animal ;  for  which  reason  they  are  called  voluntary 
muscles,  in  order  to  distinguish  them  from  the  heart  and 
other  muscular  parts,  over  which  the  will  has  no  control. 
Every  muscle,  of  course,  is  furnished  with  its  appropriate 
set  of  nerves. 


What  are  the  muscles  ?    What  do  they  constitute  ?    What  do  the  mus- 
cles consist  of?     Why  are  they  called  voluntary  muscles  ? 


THE   MUSCLES.  215 

668.  Each   muscle  is  distinguished   into  three  parts, 
called  the  origin,  venter  or   swell,  and  the  insertion  or 
termination. 

669.  The  origin  is  that  part  by  which  the  muscle  is  at- 
tached at  its  upper  end ;  the  swell  is  the  thickest  or  most 
conspicuous  part,  and  that  which  makes  up  the  chief  bulk 
of  the  whole ;  the  insertion  is  the  smaller,  or  tendinous 
part,  being  that  by  which  it  is  attached  at  the  end  oppo- 
site to  the  insertion. 

670.  These  three  parts  are   shown  by  Fig.   121,  of 
which  a  is  the  origin,  b  Pig  j2i. 

the  swell,  and  c  the  teiir- 
dinous  insertion.  The 
tendons,  in  which  most 
of  the  muscles  end,  are 
strong,  white,  glistening 
cords,  known  in  the  feet 
of  animals  under  the 
name  of  sinews.  The  tendon  in  which  the  muscles  of 
the  leg  terminate,  and  which  is  fastened  to  the  bone  of  the 
heel,  is  a  good  example  of  this  part  of  the  human  frame. 
It  is  called  the  tendo  Achilles,  and  is  said  to  have  been  so 
named,  because  as  fable  reports,  Thetis,  the  mother  of 
Achilles,  held  him  by  this  part  when  she  dipped  him  into 
the  river  Styx,  to  make  him  invulnerable.  Hence  that 
famous  hero  was  said  to  be  proof  against  all  weapons,  ex- 
cept in  the  right  heel. 

671.  Names  of  the  Muscles. — Every  part  of  the  hu- 
man body  which  we  call  fleshy,  is  covered  with  muscles, 
some   parts  having   several   layers,  one   over   the  other. 
They  all  have  distinct  names  by  which  they  are  discrimi- 
nated  by  anatomical  writers.     Most  of  these  names  are 
derived  from  those  of  the  parts  where  they  are  situated. 
Thus  the  muscles  of  the  breast  are  called  the  pectoral  mus- 
cles, from  pectus,  the  breast ;  and  those  extending  from  the 
shoulder  to  the  elbow,  are  called  the  brachial  muscles, 
from  brachium,  the  arm.     Some  are,  however,  named  from 
their  shapes,  as  long,  broad,  or  triangular. 

What  are  the  three  parts  into  which  a  muscle  is  distinguished  ?  What 
are  tendons?  What  are  the  nanv>s  of  the  muscles  generally  derived 
from? 


216          MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

672.  The  action  of  the  Muscles  depend  upon  the  Brain. 
— We  have  said  that  the  muscles  have  the  power  of  con- 
traction and  .relaxation,  at  the  will  of  the  animal.     We 
can  by  no  means  trace  the  connexion  between  the  action 
of  the  brain  in  willing,  and  the  action  of  the  muscle  in 
contracting.    We  know  that  if  all  nervous  communication 
between  the  brain  and   muscle  be  cut  off,  there  will  no 
effect  be  produced  by  the  action  of  the  brain  ;  that  is,  we 
may  will  to  raise  the  arm,  but  the  muscles  remain  inac- 
tive, without  the  intervention  of  the  nerves.     This  proves 
that   the    nerves  in  some  way,  transmit  to   the  muscles 
the  mandate  of  the  brain ;    but  how  this  is  done,  is  a 
mystery  which  has  never  been  solved,  and  most  probably 
will  always  remain  beyond  the  limits  of  human  knowl- 
edge. 

673.  Muscular  Contraction. — When    a   muscle   con- 
tracts, the  swell  becomes  enlarged  or  thickened,  and  the 
two  ends  approach  each  other.     By  grasping  the  thick 
part  of  the  arm,  above  the  elbow,  and  bringing  the  hand 
toward  the  mouth,  the  bulk  of  the  part  grasped,  will  be 
felt  to  enlarge,  and  grow  hard,  as  though  it  actually  con- 
tained more  matter  than  before  the  contraction. 

674.  In  this  act,  the  absolute  bulk  of  the  muscle  is, 
however,  supposed  not  to  change,  though  its  shape  is  con- 
siderably modified,  a  part  of  the  bulk  toward  the  extremi- 
ties, being  thrown  into  the  centre,  hence  the  increased 
hardness,  and  swelling  of  this  part.     The  contraction  of  the 
muscle  appears  to  consist  in  the  shortening  of  all  the  fibres 
individually,  by  which  the  whole  bundle  is  diminished  in 
length.     On  the  contrary,  relaxation  appears  to  be  simply 
the  want  of  contraction,  or  a  passive  state  in  which  the 
muscle  ceases  to  act. 

675.  Daring  sleep,  all  the  muscles  are  in  a  relaxed  and 
passive  state,  but  when  awake,  we  can  take  no  position, 
except  the  recumbent  one,  in  which,  more  or  less  of  these 
organs  are  not  in  an  active  state.     In  the  standing  pos- 

Can  we  trace  any  connexion  between  the  action  of  the  brain  in  swelling, 
and  the  action  of  the  muscle  in  contracting?  When  a  muscle  contracts 
how  is  its  shape  altered  ?  In  what  does  the  contraction  of  a  muscle  con 
sist  ?  In  what  does  relaxation  consist  ? 


THE    MUSCLES.  217 

ture  the  muscles  of  the  lower  limbs  and  back  are  perpetu- 
ally active,  in  order  to  keep  the  upright  position ;  for  the 
instant  they  are  relaxed,  as  from  faintness  or  a  fit,  we  fall 
to  the  ground. 

676.  Use  of  the  Muscles.-*  -Some  of  the  uses  of  the 
muscles  are  obvious,  from  what  has  just  been  said.     They 
are  also  the  grand  organs  of  motion,  by  which  the  system 
is  moved  from  one  place  to  another,  constituting  the  instru- 
ments of  locomotion.     It  is  by  the  muscles,  indeed,  that 
all  the  motions  of  the  body,  whether  general  or  local,  are 
performed ;  not  a  finger  moves  ever  so  slightly  without 
the  contraction  of  some  fibres  ;  nor  is  a  word  '  spoken,  or 
any  sound  of  the  voice  heard,  without  a  similar  motion  of 
the  muscles.     Even  the  act  of  respiration  is  carried  on  by 
these  moving  powers,  and  therefore  life  cannot  be  sustain- 
ed, even  for  a  moment,  without  their  action. 

677.  Mechanism  of  the  Muscles. — In  the  muscles  con- 
cerned in  locomotion,  and  in  the  other  voluntary  motions 
of  the  body,  the  rise  or  origin  of  the  muscle  is  from  one 
bone,  and  the  insertion  into  another,  the  thick  part  being 
between  these  two  points,  and  the  motion  is  performed  by 
the  intervention  of  a  joint. 

678.  The  bones  must,  therefore,  be  considered  as  levers, 
acted  upon  by  the  muscles ;  the  part  where  the  tendon  is 
inserted,   representing    the   power ;    the  joint   itself   the 
fulcruiL,   and  the   part   that   is   moved   constituting   the 
weight. 

679.  Lexers  are  divided  into  three  kinds,  according 'to 
Ih'     relative   position  of  their   three    essential  parts,  the 
weight,  the  power,  and  the  fulcrum.     In  the  first  kind  the 
fulcrum  is  between  the  weight  and  the  power,  or  moving 
cause ;  in  the  second,  the  fulcrum  is  at  the  end  of  the 
lever,  the  weight  being  between  it  and  the  power ;  in  the 
third,  the  power  is  in  the  centre,  between  the  weight  and 
fulcrum. 


When  are  all  the  muscles  relaxed  ?  What  are  the  uses  of  the  muscles  ? 
Considering  the  bones  and  muscles  in  a  mechanical  relation,  what  part  is 
the  lever?  What  part  the  power?  What  the  fulcrum?  What  the 
weight  ?  How  do  the  three  kinds  of  levers  differ  from  each  other? 

19 


218  MENTAL    AND   PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

680.  So  far  as  mechanical  advantage  is  concerned,  the 
last  is  by  far  the  less  effective,  and  it  is  the  application  of 
this  principle  by  which  the  levers  are  moved  by  the  mus- 
cles.    We  shall  see,  however,  that  it  is  not  mechanical 
power   alone  which  is  wanted  in  the  construction  of  the 
limbs,  and  that  all  the  circumstances  considered,  this  is  the 
only  kind  of  lever  which  could  be  employed  consistently 
with  the  perfection  of  our  organs  of  motion 

681.  Muscular  action  of  the  Jlrm  and   Hand. — The 
motion  of  the  forearm  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of  the 
effect  of  muscular  contraction,  and  the  manner  in  which  it 
is  produced   in   the    animal  system.     When  we  raise  a 
weight  by  bending  the  elbow  joint,  this  is  effected  by  mus- 
cles situated  below  the  shoulder,  with  the  tendons  inserted 
into  the  upper  sides  of  the  bones  of  the  forearm  just  below 
the  joint." 

682.  Let  a  b,  Fig.  122,  represent  the  bones  of  the  fore- 
arm, b  d  the  bone  of  the  arm,  d  the  muscle,  e  the  tendon, 

Fig.  122. 


c  the  insertion  of  the  tendon  into  the  radius,  and  b  the 
elbow  joint.  It  is  plain  that  the  contraction  of  the  muscle 
makes  c  approach  towards  d,  which,  as  d  is  a  fixed  point, 
is  effected  by  bending  the  joint  6,  raising  up  the  point  c, 
and  thus  giving  great  velocity  of  motion  to  a,  and  the 
weight  attached  to  it. 

683.  "  The  consideration  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
muscle  acts  in  this  case,  proves  that  the  mechanism  of  the 
animal  body  is  calculated  to  produce  a  great  loss  of  abso- 
lute power.  It  is  an  established  position  in  mechan- 
ics, that  in  the  action  of  levers,  the  power  is  to  the 
weight  as  the  distance  between  the  weight  and  the  ful- 

• 

What  and  is  applicable  to  the  bones  ?  Explain  Fig.  122,  and  show  why 
much  mechanical  force  is  lost  in  that  arrangement.  Why  is  muscular 
power  thus  sacrificed? 


THE  MUSCLES.  219 

crum,  is  to  the  distance  between  the  power  and  fulcrum. 
In  the  present  case,  therefore,  the  power  of  the  muscle 
is  to  the  effect  produced  by  it,  as  a  b,  is  to  c  b  ;  and  sup- 
posing c  6,  to  be  one  twentieth  of  the  length  of  a  b,  then 
one  twentieth  only  of  the  power  of  the  muscle  is  exerted 
in  raising  the  weight,  the  rest  being  expanded  in  acting 
against  the  disadvantage  of  the  position."* 

684.  We  shall  however,  find  that  it  is  a  general  fact,  or 
law  of  the  animal  economy,  that  muscular  power  is  always 
sacrificed  to  convenience.     Had  the  object  been  to  raise 
the  weight   with   the    least   possible   power,  the  muscle 
would  have  been  placed  on  the  fore-arm,  and  the  tendon 
inserted  into  the  lower  part  of  the  arm-bone,  but  in  this 
case  the  awkwardness  of  the   limb  would   have   much 
more  than  counterbalanced   the   supposed  advantage  of 
saving  the  muscular  power.     This  remark  applies  with 
still  greater  force  to  the  fingers,  which  are  now  moved 
by  the  contraction  of  muscles  placed  on  the  fore-arm, 
and   from  which   small   delicate   tendons  proceed   along 
both  sides  of  the  hand,  to  be  inserted  into  the  several 
ranks  of  bones.     Now  had  this  order  been  reversed,  and 
the  muscles  placed  on  the  fingers,  by  which  the  greatest 
mechanical  advantage  would  have  been  gained,  the  con- 
sequences would  have  been,  a  hand  so  clumsy  as  to  have 
been  nearly  useless,  and  not  only  so,  it  would  have  been, 
when  compared  with  its  present  delicate  and  beautiful  form, 
an  absolute  deformity. 

685.  Motions  of  the  Radius  and    Ulna. — Beside  the 
leverage  motions  of  the  fore-arm  above  described,  the  two 
bones   composing   it,   called  the   radius   and  ulna,  have 
movements  peculiar  to  themselves. 

686.  In  Fig.  123,  a  is  the  radius,  and  6  the  ulna,  both  of 
which  are  articulated  to  the  humerus,  as  formerly  shown  in 
Fig.  65. 

Suppose  the  muscle  of  the  hand  had  been  so  placed  as  to  have  given 
that  organ  the  greatest  mechanical  power,  what  would  have  been  the 
result  in  its  form  and  usefulness  ? 

*  Bostock's  Physiology,  vol.  i,  p.  186. 


220         MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 
Fig.  123. 


687.  The  easy  motions  of  the  hand,  which  might  be 
supposed  to  belong  to  the  wrist,  are  in  a  great  proportion 
owing  to  the  motions  of  the  radius  and  ulna.  The  up- 
and-down  action  of  the  hand,  when  the  lower  ends  of 
these  bones  are  still,  belong  to  the  wrist,  which  is  com- 
posed of  eight  bones;  but  the  rolling  motions  of  the 
hand,  by  which  the  palm  is  alternately  turned  up  and 
down,  are  caused  entirely  by  the  slight  movements  of 
the  radius  on  the  ulna.  The  'ulna  projects  beyond  the 
head  of  the  humerus,  forming,  when  the  arm  is  bent, 
the  point  of  the  elbow.  The  radius  has  a  small  round 


When  the  palm  is  turned  up  and  down,  what  bones  are  concerned  in  the 
motion  ? 


THE   MUSCLES.  221 

head  on  which  it  turns,  without  any  motion  of  the  humer- 
us ;  and  as  the  bones  of  the  wrist  are  attached  to  the 
lower  end  of  this  bone  alone,  and  not  to  the  ulna,  c, 
when  the  radhis  revolves,  the  whole  hand  turns  with  it. 
The  alternate  rolling  motion  is  called  pronation  and  supi- 
nation. 

688.  Motions  of  the  Fingers. — The  motions  of  the 
fingers  do  not  merely  result  from  the  actions  of  the  large 
muscles,  which  lie  on  the  forearm,  these  being  concerned 
more  especially  in  the  stronger  actions  of  the  hand. 

689.  The  finer  and  more  delicate  motions  of  the  fingers 
are  performed  by  small  muscles,  situated  in  the  palm  and 
between  the  bones  of  the  hand,  and  by  which  the  fingers 
are  expanded,  and  moved  in  all  directions  with  wonderful 
quickness. 

690.  These  are  the  organs  which  give  the  hand  the 
power  of  performing  all  its  nicest  motions,  and  by  which 
we  are  enabled  to  execute  our  finest  works  ;  such  as  en- 
graving, writing,  sewing,  and  painting ;  in  all  these  cases- 
the  motions  are  directed  by  the  will,  while  the  instrument 
is  guided  by  the  eye. 

691.  The  Thumb. — The  thumb  is  the  antagonist  to  the 
fingers.     On  the  length,  strength,  free  lateral  motion,  and 
perfect  mobility  of  the  thumb,  depends  the  power  of  the 
human  hand.     Without  the  fleshy  ball  of  the  thumb  the 
power  of  the  fingers  would  avail  nothing ;  and  according- 
ly, the  large  ball,  formed  by  the  muscles  of  the  thumb,  is 
the  distinguishing  character  of  the  human  hand,  and  espe- 
cially that  an  of  an  expert  workman.* 

692.  The  Fingers  of  different  Lengths. — Although  the 
fingers  are  of  different  lengths,  yet  when  they  are  doubled 
into  the  palm,  their  ends  become  parallel.      This  is  owing 
to  their  difference  of  length  being  chiefly  in  the  first  rank 


To  what  bone  is  the  wrist  attached  ?  By  what  organs  are  the  finer  and 
more  delicate  motions  of  the  hand  performed  ?  What  is  said  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  thumb  to  the  perfection  of  the  hand  ? 

•  Bell,  on  the  Hand. 

19* 


222  MENTAL   AND   PHYSICAL   EXERCISE. 

of  bones ;  in  consequence  of  which,  the  middle  joint  is 
carried  a  proportionate  distance  from  the  palm,  so  that  in 
doubling  each  point  comes  to  the  same  line. 

693.  This  difference  in  the  length  of  the  fingers,  though 
we  are  seldom  aware  of  it,  serves  to  adapt  the  hand  to  a 
great  variety  of  uses,  which  would  have  been  awkwardly 
performed  had  they  all  been  of  the  same  length.      In 
writing,  for  instance,  did  the  little  finger  project  an  inch 
and  a  half  beyond   its   present   place,   how   awkwardly 
should  we  perform.     In   grasping  any  small  article  with 
the  whole  hand,  a  similar  awkwardness    and    difficulty 
would  be  experienced. 

694.  "  Nothing,"  says  Sir  Charles  Bell,  "  is  more  re- 
markable, as  forming  a  part  of  the  prospective  design  to 
prepare  an  instrument  fitted  for  the  various  uses  of  the 
human  hand,  than  the  manner  in  which  the  delicate  and 
moving  apparatus  of  the  palm  and  fingers  is  guarded. 
The  power  with  which  the  hand  grasps,  as  when  a  sailor 
lays  hold  to  raise  his  body  in  the   rigging,  would  be  too 

.  great  for  the  texture  of  mere  tendons,  nerves,  and  vessels ', 
they  would  be  crushed,  were  not  every  part  that  bears  the 
pressure  defended  with  a  cushion  of  fat,  as  elastic  as  that 
which  we  have  described  in  the  foot  of  the  horse  and 
camel.  To  add  to  this  purely  passive  defence,  there  is  a 
muscle  which  runs  across  the  palm,  and  more  especially 
supports  the  cushion  on  its  inner  edge.  It  is  this  muscle, 
which,  raising  the  edge  of  the  palm,  adapts  it  to  lave 
water,  forming  the  cup  of  Diogenes."  Thus  does  anato- 
my prove  that  the  human  hand  was  designed  for  laborious 
employments. 

695.  Says  Ray,  "  Some  animals  have  horns,  some  have 
hoofs,  some  teeth,  some  talons,  some  claws,  some  spurs, 
and   beaks ; — man  hath  none   of  all  these,  but  is  weak 
and   feeble,   and   sent   unarmed   into   the   world — but  a 
hand,  with  reason  to  use   it,  supplies  the  place  of  all 
these." 

696.  Thus  we  see  that  the  "  lord  of  creation,"  through 


What  is  said  of  the  different  lengths  of  the  fingers  in  making  the  hand 
a  perfect  instrument  ?  What  prevents  the  nerves  and  tendons  fro  m  injm  y 
when  we  grasp  firm  a  hard  body,  as  when  a  sailor  climbs  a  rope. 


MUSCULAR  AND  NERVOUS  SYSTEMS.  223 

the  special  beneficence  of  his  divine  Maker,  has  not  only 
been  endowed  with  the  attributes  of  reason,  judgment,  and 
discretion,  but  has  also  been  given  the  most  perfect  of  all 
mechanical  instruments,  by  which  to  carry  into  effect  the 
plans  which  his  intellect  might  suggest.  No  created  being, 
except  man,  can,  with  any  instrument  furnished  him  by 
nature,  do  so  much  as  to  draw  a  pair  of  parallel  lines,  or 
even  a  single  straight  line.  But  man,  by  the  exercise  of 
his  reason,  assisted  by  his  hands,  builds  palaces,  erects 
monuments,  constructs  ships,  and  with  the  same  instru- 
ments manufactures  watches ;  and  with  still  more  delicate 
touches,  imitates  Nature  herself  with  such  art,  as  almost  to 
appear  the  author  of  a  new  creation. 

697.  All  these  powers,  so  far  from  fostering  the  pride 
and  self-sufficiency  of  man,  ought  to  be  a  reason  why  he 
should  render  to  the  Giver  of  such  endowments,  perpetual 
obedience,  thanksgiving,  and  praise. 


CONNEXION  BETWEEN   THE   NERVOUS  AND  MUSCULAR  SYSTEMS. 

698.  Every  person  of  common  observation,  has  noticed 
the  great  difference  which  exists  in  the  human  species, 
with  respect  to  muscular  firmness  and  strength,  and  ner- 
vous irritability  and  weakness  of  the  bodily  powers.  Some 
persons  are  strong  and  vigorous  in  their  muscles,  and  are 
capable  of  exerting  a  great  degree  of  strength,  and  of 
continuing  it  for  a  long  period ;  while  others,  perhaps  of 
equal  size  and  weight,  are  absolutely  incapable  of  putting 
forth  such  bodily  powers,  or  can  do  so  but  for  a  moment, 
when  they  become  utterly  exhausted. 

699.  We  find  that  persons  of  great  muscular  firmness 
are  not  generally  subject  to  what  is  called  "  nervous  ex- 
citement." They  are  not  easily  thrown  into  trepidation  ; 
they  keep  cool  and  quiet  on  all  occasions ;  while  those 
with  the  lax  muscular  fibre  are  easily  thrown  into  excite- 
ment, any  sudden  event  being  sufficient  to  bring  on  gen- 
eral agitation,  or  even  convulsions  of  the  whole  system. 


What  is  said  of  the  goodness  of  the  Creator  in  providing  man  with  an 
niment  to  execute  the  projects  his  reason  might  suggest? 


224  MENTAL    AND    PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

700.  The  Miiscles furnished  with  two  Sets  of  Nerves.— 
The  cause  of  such  differences  in  the  temperaments,  dispo- 
sitions, and  muscular  powers  of  these  two  classes  of  indi- 
viduals, as  above  described,  appear  to  be  accounted  for  by 
a  comparatively  recent  discovery  of  Sir  Charles  Bell,  who 
has  found  "that  the  muscles  are  furnished  with  two  sets  of 
nerves,  one  set  being  chiefly  concerned  in  muscular  motion 
and  the  other  in  sensation. 

701.  In  the  seventh  edition  of  his  Anatomy,  Sir  Charles 
gives  the  following  explanation  of  the  uses  of  these  two 
kinds  of  nerves  : — 

702.  "  The  muscles,"  says  he,  "  have  two  nerves,  which 
fact  has  not  hitherto  been  noticed,  because  they  are  com- 
monly bound  up  together.     But  whenever  the  nerves,  as 
about  the  head,  go  in  a  separate  course,  we  find  that  there 
is  a  sensitive  nerve  and  a  motor  for  moving]  nerve  dis- 
tributed to  the    muscular  fibre,  and  we   have   reason  to 
conclude  that  those  branches  of  the  spinal  nerves  which 
go  to  the  muscles,  consist  of  a  motor,  and  a  sensitive  fila- 
ment. 

703.  "  It  has  been  supposed  hitherto,  that  the  office  of 
a  muscular  nerve  is  only  to  carry  out  the  mandate  of  the 
will,  and  to  excite  the  muscle  to  action ;  but  this  betrays 
a  very  inaccurate  knowledge  of  the  action  of  the  mus- 
cular  system;    for   before   the   muscular  system  can   be 
controlled  under  the  influence  of  the  will,  there  must  be 
a  consciousness,  or  knowledge  of  the  condition   of  the 
muscle. 

704.  "  When  we  admit  that  the  various  conditions  of 
the  muscle  must  be  estimated,  or  perceived,  in  order  to  be 
under  the  due  control  of  the  will,  the  natural  question 
arises,  is  that  nerve  which  carries  out  the  mandate  of  the 
will,  capable  of  conveying,  at  the  same  moment,  an  im- 
pression retrograde  to  the  course  of  that  influence  which 
is  going  from  the  brain  to  the  muscle  ?  If  we  had  no 
facts  in  anatomy  to  proceed  upon,  still  reason  would  de- 
clare to  us,  that  the  same  filament  of  a  nerve  could  not 
convey  a  motion,  of  whatever  nature  that  motion  may  be, 
whether  vibration,  or  motion  of  spirits,  in  opposite  direc- 
tions at  the  same  moment  of  time. 


MUSCULAR   AND   NERVOUS   SYSTEMS.  225 

705.  "  I  find  that  to  the  full  operation  of  the  muscular 
power,  two  distinct  filaments  of  nerves  are  necessary,  and 
that  a  circle  is  established  between  the  sensorium  and  the 
muscle ;  that  one  filament  or  single  nerve  carries  the  in- 
fluence of  the  will  toward  the  muscle,  which  nerve  has 
no   power   to   convey   an    impression   backward   to   the 
brain ;  and  that  another  nerve  connects  the  muscle  with 
the  brain,  and,  acting  as   a   sentient-nerve,  conveys   the 
impression  of  the  condition  of  the  muscle  to  the  mind,  but 
has  no  operation  in  a  direction  outward  from  the  brain 
toward  the  muscle,  and  does  not  therefore  excite  the  mus- 
cle, however  irritated." 

706.  Thus   we  are,  it  would  seem,  furnished  with  a 
double  apparatus,  by  means  of  distinct  nervous  filaments, 
one  for  muscular  action  and  the  other  for  sensation, — the 
one  to  carry  our  commands  from  the  brain  to  any  mus- 
cle  which   we  would*  have   contract,  and  the   other  to 
bring  back  an  account  of  the  condition  of  said  muscle, 
and   inform  us  whether   the  contraction  is  too  great  or 
too  little,  or  whether  the  direction  of  the  lever  which 
the  muscle  has  been  concerned  in  moving  is  precisely 
such  as  to  answer  the  purpose   intended.     Thus   as   the 
painter  goes  on  with  his  work,  these  sentient-nerves  con- 
stantly warn  him  precisely  how  much   muscular  move- 
ment is  required  in  his  hand  to  place  his  colors  according 
to  his  taste;  while  the  nerves  of  contraction  move  the 
muscles  exactly   as  the  will  directs  them,  and   as  these 
different  kinds  of  information  are  conveyed  from  and  to 
the  brain  in  an  instant,  or  "  as  quick  as  thought,"  so  we 
are  insensible  of  the  lapse  of  the  least  portion  of  time 
between  the  mandate  from  the  brain  and  the  action  of  the 
muscles. 

707.  The  same  process  takes  place  in  every  action  which 
we  perform.     When  we  direct  our  eyes  toward  a  land- 
scape, for  instance,  and  having  examined  one  group  of 
objects,  move  them  ever  so  little  toward  the  next,  this 
is   not   done  without  the   action   of  the   sentient-nerves, 
which  inform  the  brain  exactly  of  the  situation  of  the 
muscles  of  the  eyes;   which  muscles,  in  their  turn,  are 
directed  how  to  move  the  orbits.     Thus,  if  we  wish  to 
turn   the  eye  from  right  to  left,  or  upward,  or  down- 


226         MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

ward,  or  alternately  in  all  these  directions,  the  straight- 
muscles  (Fig.  104),  are  thrown  into  alternate  contrac- 
tion and  relaxation,  at  the  mandate  of  the  brain.  Mean*- 
time  the  visual  portion  of  the  eye  furnishes  us  with  a 
picture  of  the  landscape,  the  different  parts  of  which 
we  thus  examine,  by  means  of  the  mechanical  portion. 
Is  it  not  plain  that  infinite  wisdom  and  Almighty  power 
only,  could  have  devised  and  constructed  such  machinery 
as  this  ? 

708.  Personal  Temperament  and  Disposition  accounted 
for. — It  is  on  the  same  principles  that  we  can  account  for 
the  difference  which  we  observe  in  persons  with  respect 
to  their  temperaments  or  dispositions,  as  already  stated. 
When  we  see  a  person  of  feeble  muscular  powrers  easily 
thrown  into  agitation,  turning   pale,  or  fainting  by  slight 
causes,  and  morbidly  sensitive  to  every  nervous  impres- 
sion, we  may  conclude  that  in  such  persons  the  sentient- 
nervous  system   predominates ;    or,   in   other   terms,   that 
the   nerves   which   carry   impressions  to   the   brain,   are 
either  more  highly  developed,  or  are  in  a  more  sensitive 
state  than  those  concerned  in  muscular  contraction.     In 
such  persons,  the   flesh  is  commonly  soft  to  the  touch, 
and  has  a  pallid  hue.     On  the  contrary,  in  persons  where 
there  is  great   muscular   power,  as   indicated,  not  only 
by   the   strong    outlines  of  the  muscles  themselves,  but 
also  by  the  capability  of  enduring  great  and  continued 
bodily  exertions,  and  by  a  temperament  void  of  excessive 
sensibility,  being  able  to  bear  strong  nervous  impressions 
with  little  indication  of  nervous  feeling;  we  may  con- 
clude that   in   such  persons  the  motor-nerves,   or   those 
concerned    in    muscular    contraction,    predominate    over 
those   subservient  to    sensation.      In   such   persons,   the 
muscles   are   commonly  rigid   to   the  touch,  even  when 
relaxed,  presenting  a  striking  contrast  with  the  morbid 
softness  of  those  parts,  in  persons  of  excessive  nervous 
mobility. 

709.  Natural  Disposition  may  be  modified. — Although, 
as  we  have  supposed,  and  the  fact  cannot  be  doubted,  that 
there  is  a  natural  difference  in   different   persons,  with 
respect  to  the  distribution  of  the  sentient  and  muscular 


MUSCULAR   AND   NERVOUS   SYSTEMS.  227 

nerves,  still  it  is  also  true,  that  the  resulting  dispositions 
can  be  modified,  and  in  a  great  measure  controlled  by  ex- 
ternal circumstances. 

710.  In  persons  where  the  two  different  nervous  powers 
are  naturally  in  the  most  perfect  equilibrium,  the  one  may 
be  made  to  predominate  completely  over  the  other,  by  the 
habits,  the  occupation,  or  perhaps  the  condition  in  life 
into  which  the  person  happens  to  be  thrown.  Excessive 
study,  a  sedentary  life,  luxurious  -living,  especially  in  re- 
spect to  drinks,  habitual  melancholy,  or  a  general  dispo- 
sition to  give  way  to  the  love  of  ease  and  indolence,  will, 
either  of  them,  in  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  induce  a  nerv- 
ous temperament,  though  the  natural  organization  of  the 
two  systems  might  have  been  as  perfect  as  ever  a  human 
being  enjoyed. 

711.  On  the  contrary,  persons  in  whom  the  nervous 
disposition  might  have  naturally  inclined  to  laxity  of  mus- 
cular fibre,  and  excessive  sensorial  irritability,  by  the  ha- 
bitual practice  of  rigid  temperance,  moderate  study,  if  at 
all,  an  active  life,  requiring  the  constant  use  of  the  mus- 
cles, together  with  a  train  of  circumstances  in  life  calcu- 
lated to  inspire  cheerfulness  and  hope — by  these  means, 
such  persons  would  undoubtedly  overcome    the   natural 
predominance  of  the  nervous  system,  and  induce  a  perma- 
nent state  of  muscular  firmness,  which  would  produce  a 
highly  gratifying  contrast  with  that  which  an  apposite 
mode  of  living,  or  train  of  circumstances  would  have  pro- 
duced. 

712.  Force  of  Muscular  Contraction. — The  force  with 
which  the  muscles  contract,  depend  on  the  size  and  condi- 
tion of  the  muscle,  and  on  the  energy  of  the  brain ;  that 
is,  the  degree  of  excitement  which  exists  during  the  time. 

713.  The  same  muscle,  or  same  limb,  varies  greatly  in 
the  strength   which  it  is  capable  of  exerting.     If  a  man 
naturally  and  habitually  powerful  in  his  muscles,  should 
suffer  them  to  remain  inactive  for  a  considerable  length  of 
time,  they  will  become  absolutely  incapable  of  those  strong 
contractions,  which,  had  they  been  habituated  to  constant 
action,  they  would  have  performed  with  ease.     This  is  a 
fact  that  has  fallen  within  the  experience  of  almost  every 


228  MENTAL    AND    PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

person,  and  is  accounted  for  in  the  popular  way,  by  the 
common  observation,  that  "  if  we  do  not  employ  our 
muscles,  they  will  lose  their  strength/'  which  indeed  ac- 
counts for  the  fact,  but  not  for  its  cause.  The  cause  ap- 
pears to  be,  that  the  action  of  a  muscular  part,  excites  the 
blood-vessels  to  throw  into  it  a  greater  portion  of  their 
contents  than  they  otherwise  would,  so  that  such  parts  are 
better  nourished  than  those  that  remain  inactive.  Thus 
the  arm  with  which  a  blacksmith  uses  his  hammer,  whether 
the  right  or  left,  is  by  far  more  powerful  than  the  other. 
The  muscles  of  this  limb  are  also  larger  than  those  of  the 
other,  and  are  much  more  tense  and  rigid  to  the  touch — a 
positive  proof  of  the  tendency  of  muscular  motion  to  pro- 
duce strength  and  vigor. 

714.  The  Roman  gladiators  understood,  practically,  the 
great  advantages  of  employing  their  muscles,  in  order  to 
gain  the  most  perfect  use  of  their  limbs,  together  with  the 
utmost  physical  power.     Hence  they  put  forth  continued 
exertions  in  walking  and  other  exercises,  and  performed 
feats  of  strength,  which,  in  the  present  age,  would  appear 
incredible. 

715.  In  more  modern  times,  men  have  occasionally  ap- 
peared, who,  from  the  size  and  condition  of  their  muscles, 
were  capable  of  exerting  degrees  of  strength  w7hich  as- 
tonished  every   beholder.      Sir   David   Brewster,   in  his 
"  Natural  Magic,"  has  collected  and  stated  a  number  of 
instances  of  this  kind. 

716.  Thomas  Topham. — One  of  the  most  powerful  men 
of  modern  times,  was  the  famous  Thomas  Topham,  of 
whom  many  ludicrous  anecdotes,  illustrative  of  his  enor- 
mous  muscular. strength;  are  related;  such  as  the  rolling 
up  of  pewter  dishes  with  his  hands,  as  others  tip  sheets  of 
pasteboard ;  crushing  the  bowls  of  tobacco-pipes,  by  the 
lateral  pressure  of  the  fingers  of  one  hand,  &c.      He  took 
an  iron  kitchen-poker,  .a  yard  long   and  three  inches  in 
circumference,   or   an   inch   in  diameter,  and  holding  it 
in  his  right  hand,  struck  it  upon  his  bare  left  arm,  be- 
tween the  elbow  and  the  wrist,  until  he  bent  the  iron 
nearly   to   right   angles.     He   took   another  poker,    and 
holding  the  ends  of  it  in  his  hands,  put  the  middle  over 
his  neck,  and  then  brought  the  two  ends  together  before 


MUSCULAR    AND    iNKKVOUS    SYSTEM.  229 

him;  and  afterward  undid  the  mischief,  by  making  it 
straight  again  with  his  hands,  as  others  do  a  piece  of 
wire.  He  lifted  a  stone  weighing  800  pounds,  with  his 
hands  only,  standing  in  a  frame  above  it  and  taking  hold 
of  a  chain  to  which  it  was  fastened. 

717.  These  feats  illustrate  the  force  of  muscular  contrac- 
tion, depending  merely  on  size  and  condition ;  since  in 
such  cases  there  is  no  uncommon  nervous  excitement,  or 
cerebral  energy.     But  where  there  is  strong  mental  ex- 
citement, as  in  mania,  or  delirium,  the  other  circumstances 
being  equal,  there  is  a  still  greater  exhibition  of  muscular 
power,  as  the  keepers   of  retreats  for  the   insane  have 
often  found  to  their  sorrow,  and  sometimes  to  their  horror 
and  dismay. 

718.  No  one,  except  by  experience,  can  have  the  least 
conception   of  the  efforts  of  muscularity,  which  a  deli- 
cate and  slightly-made  female  is  capable  of  exerting  when 
in  a  state  of  maniacal  rage.     In  some  instances,  men  of 
ordinary  physical  powers,  are  mere  "  smoking  flax,"  before 
the  muscular  velocity  of  these  most  pitiable  objects ;  and 
even  the  strongest  men  are  sometimes  foiled  in  attempting 
to  prevent  them  from  committing  some  outrageous  act  on 
which  they  are  determined. 

719.  Such  acts  are  rather  the  effects  of  muscular  veloci- 
ty, than  of  strength ;  for  the  efforts  are  soon  exhausted, 
after  the  limbs  are  brought  into  a  situation  where  a  quick 
movement  is  no  longer  of  any  avail. 

720.  Method  of  increasing  the  Muscular  Powers. — 
There  is  no  doubt  the  power  of  the  muscles  may  be  greatly 
increased  by  a  certain  restricted  course  of  exercise  and 
diet,  to  which  the  subject  confines  himself  for  a  given 
length  of  time.     The  English  boxers  go  through  such^a 
course  in   order   to   prepare   themselves   for   public  per- 
formances, and  we  can  see  no  reason  why  others  should 
not  imitate  their  example,  so  far  as  the  training  is  con- 
cerned, in  order  to   gain  that  perfect  health  which  it  is 
said   these   men   enjoy.     There    are  few,  however,  who 
would   submit   to    such   discipline  without   some   special 
motive,   other   than   the   enjoyment   of  ordinary   health. 
But  that  the  reader  may  observe  how  these  men  deny 

20 


230         MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

themselves,  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  mere  musculai 
power,  and  that  for  no  laudable  purpose,  we  will  give  a 
few  of  the  rules  of  training. 

721.  There  are   Professors  of  Sparring,  whose  sole 
business  it  is,  to  teach  the  art,  by  learning  their  pupils  the 
manner  and  time  of  striking,  as  well  as  the  modes  of  de- 
fence ;  and  the  means  of  gaining  muscular  strength  by  diet 
and  exercise.     While  training,  they  are  directed  to  eat 
beef  and  mutton,  rather  under  than  over  done,  and  this 
without   any  seasoning  or  sauce,  the  only  addition  to  these 
two  articles  of  solid  food,  being  bread  or  biscuit.     Neither 
veal,  lamb,   pork,   fish,    milk,    butter,    cheese,    puddings, 
pastry,  or  vegetables  of  any  kind  are  allowed.     The  beef 
and  mutton  must  be  fresh,  that  is,  not"  salted,  and  may  be 
cooked  by  roasting,  broiling.,  or  boiling,  alternately,  or  as 
best  suits  the  appetite  of  the  trained. 

722.  The  strictest  temperance  is  absolutely  insisted  on, 
by  all  regular  trainers,  good  home-brewed  beer,  or  ale, 
being  recommended  as  the  ordinary  drink  at  meals.     Those 
who  do  not  like  the  beer  are  allowed  a  little  red  wine  and 
water  with  their  dinners,  but  not  to  exceed  in  quantity 
eight  ounces,  or  half  a  pint  per  day,  spirits  of  every  kind 
being  strictly  prohibited. 

723.  Eight  hours  sleep   are  considered  necessary,  but 
this  is  left  to  the  previous  habits  of  the  person,  and  may  be 
varied  according  to  the  amount  of  exercise  during  the  day. 

724.  The  breakfast  hour  is  eight  o'clock ;  dinner  at  two  ; 
supper  being  entirely  omitted,  or  to  consist  of  a  little  bit  of 
cold  meat  at  eight ;  after  which  a  walk  is  taken,  and  they 
retire  to  bed  at  ten. 

725.  Much  exercise,  consisting  of  sparring  and  walking, 
is  taken  during  the  whole  time  of  training,  and  undoubtedly 
*]*  high  degree  of  cheerfulness  in  which  men  thus  situated 
indulge,  contributes  greatly  to  the  good  effects  of  the  com- 
parative temperance  to  which  they  are  restricted,  at  least 
for  a  considerable  time. 

726.  Dr.  Kitchener  says,  that  "  by  this  mode  of  proceed- 
ing for  two  or  three  months,  the  constitution  of  the  human 
frame  is  greatly  improved,  and"  the  courage  proportion- 
ably  increased.     A  person  who  was  breathless,  and  pant- 
ing on  the  least  exertion,  and  had  a  certain  share  of 
those   nervous  and  bilious  complaints,  which  are  occa- 


PRACTICAL    INFERENCES.  231 

sionally  the  companions  of  all  who  reside  in  great  cities, 
by  such  means  becomes  enabled  to  run  with  ease  and 
fleetness." 

727.  "  The  restorative  process  having  proceeded  with 
healthful  regularity,  every  part  of  the  constitution  is  ef- 
fectually invigorated,  and  a  man  feels  so  conscious  of  the 
augmentation  of  his  powers,  both  bodily  and  mental,  that 
he  will  undertake  with  alacrity  a  task  which  before  he 
could  not  but  shrink  from  encountering." 

728.  About  two  months  is  considered  the  average  time 
necessary  to  fit  a  man  for  the  ring,  or  for  public  exhibi- 
tion as  a  boxer  by  the  above  means  ;  and  it  is  particularly 
worthy  of  observation,  that  alcoholic  liquors  are  discarded 
by  these  men,  for  no  other  reason  than  that  experience  has 
taught  them,  that  its  effects  are  to  weaken  the  muscular 
powers  and  deotroy  the  courage  of  their  pupils.  Therefore, 
he  who  has  much  labor  to  perform,  or  a  battle  to  fight, 
ought  never  to  drink  spirits. 


PRACTICAL  INFERENCES  FROM  THE  FOREGOING  PRINCIPLES. 

729.  Connexion  between  the  Brain  and  the  Muscles. — The 
intimate  connexion  which  exists  between  the  muscles  and 
the  brain — between  the  nervous  system  generally,  and 
those  parts  by  wThich  the  motions  of  the  human  frame  are 
produced,  and  which  connexion  has  been  illustrated  by  a 
reference  to  the  voluntary  muscles — indicate  in  a  most  de- 
cided manner  the  mutual  dependance  which  subsists  be- 
tween them  ;  and  tend  to  show  as  clearly  as  the  nature  of 
the  case  will  admit,  the  necessity  of  employing  both  the 
nervous  and  muscular  functions  at  the  same  time,  in  order 
that  both  should  be  in  a  healthy  state.  And  especially  do 
these  principles  show,  that  the  nervous  system  cannot 
long  be  employed  alone  without  a  derangement  in  the 
functions  of  both. 

730.  It  has  been  our  chief  object  in  the  foregoing  sec- 
tions, to  show  the  connexion  which  exists  between  the 
nervous  system  and  the  voluntary  muscles,  but  this  may  be 
taken  as  an  example  of  the  existence  of  the  same  relation 
between  that  system  and  all  the  muscular  fibres  in  the 


232  MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

body  whether  voluntary  or  not.  Thus  the  heart,  and  the 
muscles  of  respiration,  are  equally,  with  the  voluntary 
muscles,  dependant  on  the  action  of  the  brain.  The  or- 
gans of  mastication  and  digestion  are  also  under  the  same 
influence. 

731.  In  every  series  of  actions,  therefore,  which  take 
place  in  any  part  of  the  whole  system,  there  is  a  mutual 
sympathy  and  dependance  on  some  other  part. 


MUSCULAR  EXERCISES  OF  THE  CLERGY  AND  OTHER  LITERARY 
MEN. 

732.  And  now  we  come  to  the  more  especial  object  of 
this  part  of  our  work,  which  is,  to  show  that  the  vigorous 
functions  of  the  brain  cannot  long  be  sustained,  without  a 
corresponding  exertion  of  the  muscles,  and  that  this  exer- 
tion absolutely  requires  that  the  brain  should  be  more  or 
less  excited.  We  intend  that  these  doctrines  should  apply 
more  particularly  to  students  and  literary  men,  and  we 
shall  begin  by  showing  the  duty  of  ministers  of  the  gos- 
pel in  respect  to  bodily  exercise.  The  present  condition 
of  the  clergy  and  other  literary  men  of  our  country,  points 
to  the  vast  importance  of  seeking  some  remedy  against  the 
consequences  of  literary  pursuits,  and  sedentary  habits,  on 
their  corporeal  and  mental  functions.  Not  only  ministers 
of  all  ages,  but  students,  only  a  few  years  advanced  in 
their  studies,  are  constantly  "breaking  down"  as  it  is 
termed,  under  the  pressure  of  their  literary  burdens; 
many  of  the  first  class  being  obliged  to  go  to  Europe,  or 
otherwise  suspend  their  labors  in  order  to  recruit  their 
wTornout  frames,  and  rest  awhile  from  their  cerebral  occu- 
pation ;  while  perhaps  an  equal  number  of  the  last  find 
themselves  under  the  necessity  of  retiring  entirely  from 
the  field  of  literary  pursuits,  and  of  seeking  some  employ- 
ment in  which  less  is  required  of  the  nervous,  and  more  of 
the  muscular  system ;  and  thus  the  literary  or  ministerial 
services  of  many  young  men  of  great  promise,  and  whose 
labors  and  influence  would  be  highly  important  to  the 
church,  or  the  interests  of  education,  are  in  a  great  meas- 
ure lost  to  the  country. 


MUSCULAR    EXERCISE    OF    LITERARY    MEN.  233 

733.  Causes  of  these  Failures. — With  respect  to  the 
causes  of  these  calamities,  for  such  they  certainly  are,  both 
with  respect  to  individuals  and  the  nation,  there  can  be 
only  one  opinion.     They  are  brought  on  by  too  much 
mental  and  too  little  muscular  labor.     Thus  the  'balance 
of  the  system,  which  we  have  seen  requires  a  due  propor- 
tion between  the  exercise  of  the  nervous  and  muscular 
powers,  is  lost, — the  equilibrium  of  health  is  destroyed,  in 
consequence  of  the  predominance  of  the  sentient,  over  the 
muscular  principle. 

734.  Obvious  Effects  of  too  much  Mental  Labor. — In 
such  subjects,  it  will  be  found,  that  after  a  while  the  flesh 
becomes  soft  and  flabby,  while  the  muscles  can  only  be 
made  to  perform  their  ordinary  functions  with  difficulty, 
all  continued  or  violent  exercise  is  instinctively  avoided, 
and  even  a  walk  of  a  mile  or  two,  at  the  urgent  request 
of  a  friend,  and  which  once  gave  so  much  pleasure,  is  now 
undertaken  with  reluctance.     Fatigue,  even  after  walking 
but  a  few  hundred  yards,  becomes  the  prominent  feeling, 
and  the  man  often  returns  home,  after  a  short  trial,  for 
fear  that  he  shall  not  be  able  to  do  so,  if  he  continues  his 
walk.     Having  returned,  perhaps  out  of  breath,  he  seats 
himself,  and  concludes  that  exercise,  since  it  brings  on 
fatigue,  is  not  only  useless,  but  hurtful  to  him  ;  and  thus, 
if  he  cannot  be  made  to  change  tins  opinion,  consigns 
himself  to   the  nearly  hopeless  condition  of  a  confirmed 
"  literary  dyspeptic." 

735.  "Meantime  the  nervous  system  increases  in  suscep- 
tibility in  proportion  as  the  muscles  lose  their  contractile 
powers,  and  fall  into  a  state  of  weakness.     The  subject 
becomes   exceedingly   sensitive    to   nervous    impressions. 
Occurrences  of  little  consequence,  and  which  in  his  former 
condition  would  have  produced  no  sensation,  now  affect 
him  very  unpleasantly.     He  becomes  irritated  and  vexed 
at  every  little  mishap  in  the  affairs  of  life.     His  friends, 
he  begins  to  imagine,  do  not  behave  toward  him  as  for- 
merly ;  they  have  deserted  him  in  his  affliction ;  and  his 
own  family  are  wanting  in  that  kindness  which  was  for- 
merly shown  him,  and  which  his  present  weak  condition 
now  particularly  demands.     At  the  same  time  he  finds  it 

20* 


234  MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

exceedingly  difficult  for  him  to  proceed  with  his  literary 
labors.  His  head  often  feels  as  though  there  was  a  rush 
of  blood  upon  the  brain ;  his  intellect  becomes  clouded, 
and  he  cannot  keep  along  with  the  thread  of  his  subject, 
or  pursue  his  studies,  as  formerly.  Sometimes  he  throws 
down  his  pen  in  utter  despair,  and  thinks  he  would  wil- 
lingly change  places  with  any  laborer  he  happens  to  see 
in  the  street. 

736.  These  are  but  a  few  of  the  feelings,  and  troubles, 
and  perplexities,  which  a  student  suffers,  when  he  allows 
his  nervous,  to  gain  the  .ascendency  over  his  muscular  sys- 
tem, and  unless  some  remedy  be  sought,  will  most  proba- 
bly end  in  palsy  or  apoplexy,  or,  at  least,  in  such   a  con- 
dition of  the   system   as  to  render  it  incapable  of  any 
useful  employment  for  a  length  of  time,  depending  more 
or  less  on  that,  during  which  it  has  remained  in  such  a 
condition. 

737.  Clergymen  not  allowed  exciting  Exercise. — The 
cause  of  these  affections  we  have  said,  is  an  undue  pro- 
portion of  mental  labor,  when  compared  with  that  of 
muscular  exercise. 

738.  With  respect  to  clergymen,  it  is  well  known  that 
there  exists  an  artificial  difficulty  in  their  indulging  in  that 
kind  of  exercise  which  is  most  congenial  to   mental  and 
muscular  vigor,  owing  to  the  habits  and  opinions  of  soci- 
ety.    For  it  is  the  law  of  the  system,  which  applies  to 
ministers  equally  with  others,  that  no  exercise  is  effectual 
in  restoring,  or  maintaining,  the  equilibrium  between  the 
nervous  and  muscular  systems,  unless  the  brain  is  at  the 
same  time  excited.     By  this  we  mean,  that  the  exercise 
must  be  of  that  kind  in  which  the  mind,  for  the  time,  takes 
a  strong  interest.     This  is  absolutely  necessary,  nor  is  it, 
we  believe,  possible,  for  any  one  who  has  lost  his  muscu- 
lar energy  by  studious  and  sedentary  habits,  to  regain   it 
by  any  kind  of  exercise  which  does  not  give  pleasure,  or, 
to  use  a  more  common  phrase,  "  carry  the  mind  along 
with  it." 

739.  Nor  is  it  in  the  power  of  students  generally,  to 
retain  their  vigor  of  mind  and  body,  for  any  considerable 
length  of  time,  without  the  use  of  some  such  exercise. 

740.  The  principles  we  have  already  drawn,  from  the  fact 


MUSCULAR   EXERCISE   OF   LITERARY   MEN.  235 

that  every  muscle  has  distributed  to  it,  one  set  of  nerves 
for  muscular  action,  and  another  for  cerebral  impressions, 
proves  beyond  all  doubt,  that  this  is  the  case.  The  vigor- 
ous and  healthy  action  of  the  muscles  absolutely  require 
that  the  brain,  at  the  same  time,  should  be  under  excite- 
ment, otherwise  the  nervous  influence  from  which  muscular 
contractility  is  derived,  will  not  be  supplied. 

741.  Now  the  great  obstacle  to  clerical  amusements 
appears  to  arise  from  the  circumstance,  that  the  feelings 
and  prejudices,  of  the  public,  to   a  considerable  extent  at 
least,  will  not  allow  these  men  to  partake  of  such  gym- 
nastic  sports    as  people  generally  may   indulge  in,   and 
which,  of  all  others,  is  the  kind  of  exercise  they  most 
require. 

742.  We  are  far  from  desiring  to  see  the  dignity  of  the 
clergy  lowered,  and  we  should  regret  as  much   as  others, 
to  see  them  doing  acts  which  would  in  the  least  degree 
tend  to  lessen  the  respect  \vhich  they  have,  and  ought 
to  maintain  from  the   public.     But  It  seems  absolutely 
necessary  that  something  should  be  done  on  this  subject. 
Not  a  year  elapses,  but  a  number,  often  of  the  most  de- 
voted and  useful  members  of  the  sacred  office,  in  different 
parts  of  our  country,  are  under  the  necessity  of  leav- 
ing their  people,  being  literally  "  worn  out"   with  their 
clerical  labors.     This,  it  is  well  known,  is  the  case,  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  with  all  the  orthodox  denomina- 
tions, the  ministers  of  which,  are  expectgd  every  Sabbath 
in  the  year,  at  least  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  to  pro- 
di%e   two   well-written   sermons,   beside    a   semi-weekly 
lecture;  and  to  perform  other  parish  duties,  requiring  as  a 
whole,  almost  unremitted  mental  labor  from  one  year's  end 
to  another. 

743.  Men  incapable  of  constant  Mental  Labor. — Now 
the  facts  clearly  prove  that  human  beings,  taken  as  a  body, 
are  incapable,  under  such  circumstances,  of  sustaining  such 
mental  burdens ;  they  sink  down  under  them  from  debility 
and  exhaustion,  and  one  after  another,  even  in  the  prime 
of  life,  and  in  the  midst  of  their  usefulness,  disappear  from 
public  scenes,  and  in  not  a  few  instances,  find  that  they 
have  done  so  too  late. 

744.  Clergymen  are  still  men,  and  like  others,  are  sub- 
iect  to  the  laws  which  govern  vital  and  corporeal  action ; 


236  MENTAL   AND   PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

and  it  is  therefore,  plain,  either  that  the  public  must  dis- 
pense with  a  portion  of  their  services,  or  that  they  must 
be  allowed  to  indulge  in  recreative  exercises ;  otherwise 
they  will  inevitably  sink  under  their  mental  labors,  and 
many  of  them  at  least,  go  down  to  premature  graves. 

745.  Former  Condition  of  the  Clergy. — The  condition 
of  the  clergy  in  this  country,  is  entirely  different  from  what 
it  was  within  the  memory  of  many  of  them,  who  are  still 
able  to  perform  their  clerical  duties ;  and  who  have  lived 
to  see  several  generations  of  their  younger  brethren  come 
forward,    and  pass  away,   while  they,  themselves,  have 
continued  their  labors  until  the  present  day. 

746.  A  great  proportion  of  our  ministers,  no  longer  than 
fifty  years  since,  were  settled  on  farms,  with  salaries  of 
from  two,  to  three,  and  seldom,  four  hundred  dollars  per 
year.     They  were  therefore  under  the  necessity  of  labor- 
ing with  their  hands,  in  order  to  maintain  their  families. 
Besides,  their  flocks  were  often  so  scattered  as  to  occupy 
a  considerable  portion  of  time,  and  some  bodily  exercise, 
in  order  to  visit  the  several  families  even  once  a  year.     At 
these  visits,  the  minister  always  received  presents  of  pro- 
visions from  his  parishioners,  but  in  case  the  visit  was  not 
made,  the  present  was  not  given ;    a  good  old  custom, 
which  always  insured  every  family  in  the  parish  a  personal 
acquaintance  with  their  minister. 

747.  At  that  period,  too,  the  mental  labors  of  the  clergy 
were  not  more  than  about  one  third  what  they  are  at  the 
present  day,  especially  in  towns.     They  preached  two  <&H- 
mons  a  week ;  in  addition  to  which,  an  extra  sermon  once 
a  month,  or  once  in  two  months,  preparatory  to  the  com- 
munion, made  up  their  stated  labors. 

748.  Here  it  is  obvious  that  the  exertions  of  the  mind 
were  not,  disproportioned  to  those  of  the  muscles,  and  hence 
the  clergy  were  then  among  the  longest-lived  individuals 
of  their  parishes,  as  is  proved  by  the  living  witnesses  of 
that  body  which  here  and  there  still  remain. 

749.  It  is  unnecessary  further  to  contrast  the  parochial 
labors  of  the  clergy  of  the  present  day,  writh  those  of  their 
fathers  in  the  church.     It  is  well  known  that  the  increase 
of  population,  as  well  as  a  more  advanced  state  of  edu- 
cation, have  rendered  it  necessary  to  increase  these  la- 


MUSCULAR  EXERCISE  OF  LITERARY  MEN.  237 

bors  more  than  twofold.  At  the  same  time,  as  their 
fathers  required  no  extra  exercise — no  relaxation  from 
their  parochial  duties,  the  public  appear  to  have  grown 
up  in  the  belief  that  their  sons  do  not ;  and  that  it  would 
be  derogatory  to  clerical  sobriety  and  dignity,  for  them  to 
indulge  in  any  sort  of  pleasant  unbending  of  their  minds. 

750.  Different  Effects  of  Exercise. — Sawing  and  split- 
ting wood,  with  perhaps  a  little  work  in  the  garden,  and 
riding  on  horseback  a  few  miles,  or  walking  the  streets  for 
an  hour  or  two,  form  the  chief  amusements,  and  the  chief 
muscular  exercise  of  the  most  laborious,  and  in  the  esti- 
mation of  the  great  majority  of  the  people,  the  most  useful 
body  of  men  in  community.     Even  this  small  amount  of 
exercise  is  seldom  taken  regularly,  and  if  so,  is  of  very 
little  use  to  the  subject,  as  there  is  no  other  object  in 
view  but  merely  to  perform  a  duty.     The  thread  of  the 
next   discourse   frequently  remains   unbroken,   and  often 
the   individual   hurries   home  while  the  ink  of  his   last 
paragraph  is   hardly  dry,  to  record   some   new  idea,  or 
write  down  what  he  has  made  ready  in  his  mind  during 
his  absence. 

751.  To  one  whose  body  and  mind  begins  to  suffer,  in 
consequence  of  confinement  to  his   study,  and  perpetual 
mental  exertions,  nearly  all  who  have  experienced  its  ef- 
fects, will  allow  that  such  exercise  is  of  little  or  no  use. 
Such  a  one  wants  a  motive  ;  he  wants  cerebral  excite- 
ment to  co-operate  with  and  invigorate  muscular  action ; 
and  it  will  astonish  those,  who,  for  the  first  time,  notice 
the  different  effects  on  their  own  feelings,  of  forced  mus- 
cular exertions,  and  that  sanative  exercise  which  is  pro- 
duced when  the  mind  is  intensely  fixed  on  an  object,  the 
attainment  of  which  requires  the  strongest  corporeal  ex 
ertions.     The  one  induces  fatigue  of  the  body,  without  at 
all  relieving  the  mind  ;  while  the  other,  so  far  from  pro- 
ducing fatigue,  brings  the  whole   system   into   a  highly 
pleasant  state  of  freedom  and  elasticity  ;  'while  the  mind, 
sympathising  with  these  pleasant  sensations,  becomes  in- 
vigorated, and  is  again  ready  for  the  performance  of  its 
proper  functions. 

752.  Continued  muscular  Efforts  to  require  Cerebral 
Excitement. — The  principles  of  physiology  which  we  have 


238  MENTAL   AND   PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

already  explained,  show,  most  decidedly,  that  continued 
corporeal  exertions  may  be  maintained  under  the  stimulus 
of  the  mind,  which  the  same  individual  could  not  possibly 
sustain  under  coercion. 

.  753.  We  see  the  exercise  of  this  principle  every  day. 
A  boy  with  his  kite  or  gun,  will  exert  all  the  powers  of 
his  muscles  for  five  or  six  hours,  or  even  for  the>  whole 
day,  and  still  hardly  complain  of  or  feel  fatigued ;  while 
the  same  amount  of  muscular  power  exerted  against  his 
will,  could  not  possibly  have  been  sustained,  though  his 
life  might  depend  on  the  performance. 

754.  Dr.  Darwin9 s  Case. — A  case  mentioned  by  Dr. 
Darwin,  illustrates  our  subject.     A  young  man  full  of  de- 
sire to  see  his  female  friend,  who  was  fifty-five  miles  from 
him,  decided  to  undertake  the  journey  on  foot  the  next 
day  ;  and  which,  under  the  stimulus  of  hope  and  expecta- 
tion, he  performed  without  difficulty.     Having  arrived  at 
her  residence,  he  found  that  she  was  attending  a  ball  in 
the  vicinity,  to  which  place  of  course  he  repaired  without 
delay.     Here  were  new  causes  of  excitement ;  the  object 
of  all  his  thoughts  he  now  saw  dressed  in  gay  attire ;  the 
music,  the  friends,  the  dance,  all  tended  to  make  him  for- 
get his  long  journey ;  and,  as  though  fresh  from  the  neigh- 
borhood, he  joined  in  the  pleasures  of  the  evening,  and 
danced  most  of  the  night  with  his  wonted  vigor  and  vi- 
vacity, and  all  this  without  fatigue. 

755.  Now  had  this  performance  been  commenced  by 
compulsion,  that  is,  had  this  person  been  made  to  take  the 
same  number  of  steps  at  the  command  of  a  master,  and 
then  in  the  ball-room  had  he  been  compelled  by  the  whip 
to  use  the  same  gestures  that  he  did  with  his  lady,  at  the 
sound  of  the  music,  what  think  you  would  have  been  the 
consequence  ?     Undoubtedly  he  would  have  sunk  down 
and  died  from  exhaustion,  under  such  treatment. 

756.  In  armies,  it  is  well   known  that  long  marches 
can  be  endured  under  the  excitement  of  music ;  while 
without  this,  many  of  the  soldiers  would  be  unable  to  per- 
form the  duty  required,  and  would  be  left  behind  even  in 
the  country  of  the  enemy.     In  forced  marches,  therefore, 
the  commander   who  understands  this,  divides  his   mu- 


NATURE    REQUIRES   EXCITING   EXERCISE.  239 

sic,  so  as  to  keep  a  part  of  the  band  constantly  playing 
such  airs  as  to  accommodate  the  pace  of  the  marching 
soldiers. 

757.  The  same  principle  is  involved  in  the  attempt  of 
an  adult  to  follow  a  child  of  three  or  four  years  old  where- 
ever  it  chooses  to  go  for  a  whole  day,  taking  a  similar 
number  of  steps,  and  using  similar  gestures.     A  healthy, 
active  child,  if  entirely  unrestrained,  will  soon  convince 
the  unthinking  adult  who  undertakes  such  a  task,  that  he 
has  a  day's  work  before  him  which  he  little  expected ; 
nor  do  we  believe  it  in  the  pow,er  of  many  persons  to  per- 
form such  a  feat.      The  reason  is  obvious  :  the  child  is 
constantly  excited   by  his  play,  and  by  a  succession  of 
new  objects  and  new  motives ;  while  the  adult,  having 
no  mental  excitement,  by  which  the  nervous  influence  is 
sent  from  the  brain  to  the  muscles,  their  contractions  are 
merely  mechanical,  and  therefore  they  soon  become  ex- 
hausted. 

758.  A  parallel  case  is,  where  two  men  of  equal  mus- 
cular powers  go  out  on  a  sporting  excursion,  the  one  a 
keen  and  ardent  sportsman,  and  the  other  going  as  a  mere 
spectator.     The  former  having  a  motive,  and  being  con- 
stantly intent  upon  his  game,  but  not  thinking  of  himself, 
will  traverse  bogs,  bushes,  and  briars,  for  miles,  without 
being  aware  of  distance,  or  time,  or  place,   and  without 
feeling  the  least  fatigue ;  while  the  spectator,  trying  to 
keep  with  his  companion,  without  any  other  motive  than 
doing  so,  soon  becomes  so  exhausted  as  to  be  incapable  of 
further  action,  often  wondering  at  the  same  time,  how  it  is 
possible  for  his  companion  to  go  at  such  a  rate,  through 
such  walking,  and  for  so  long  a  time,  without  complaining 
of  fatigue. 

NATURE  REQUIRES  EXCITING  EXERCISE. 

759.  It  is  in  vain  to  plead  natural  gravity,  or  a  want 
of  disposition  to  indulge  in  those  exercises  which  relax  the 
mind  of  the  studious,  as  an  excuse  for  denying  them  to 
others,  or  not  adopting  such  for  ourselves.     Nature,  whose 
laws  we  profess  to  follow  in  this  matter,  makes  no  such 
excuse.     On  the  contrary,  unless  the  system  be  worn  out 


240  MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

with  age  or  sickness^  there  exists  in  the  feelings  of  every 
person  a  natural  disposition  for  play,  both  in  the  mind 
and  muscles  ;  and  where  the  restraints  of  society  •« 
circumstances  are  removed,  we  may  everywhere  ob- 
serve illustrations  of  this  law  of  nature.  Hence  at 
watering  places,  at  the  seashore,  or  any  other  place 
devoted  to  public  amusement  and  relaxation,  persons  of 
the  most  erect  gravity  at  home,  and  even  members  of  the 
sacred  office,  throwing  off  the  mantle  of  restraint,  which 
had,  perhaps,  for  a  quarter  of  a  century,  hid  their  natural 
dispositions,  not  only  from  all  their  associates,  but  almost 
from  themselves,  again  become  boys  and  play  all  sorts 
of  recreative  games,  with  as  much  interest,  and  nearly 
with  the  same  agility,  as  they  did  twenty  or  thirty  years 
before. 

760.  Men  bound  to  use  Exercise  which  conduces  to 
Health. — Now  we  do  not  make  the  above  remarks  by  way 
of  accusation,  or  for  the  purpose  of  hinting  that  such  in- 
dulgences involve  either  hypocrisy  or  levity.  On  the 
contrary,  such  facts  illustrate  and  confirm  the  principles 
of  organic  life  which  we  have  attempted  to  establish  with 
the  best  intentions,  and  for  the  best  of  purposes.  They 
show  that,  nature  is  averse  to  the  solemn  restraints  of  so- 
ciety, and  that  exciting  exercise,  because  it  is  most  agree- 
able and  most  natural,  is  the  only  kind  which  relieves 
the  body  and  mind,  when  the  first  has  become  torpid 
from  too  little,  and  the  last  from  too  much  exercise.  And 
for  the  purpose  of  verifying  these  principles  we  would 
call  upon  those  who  now  and  then  yield  to  the  mandates 
of  nature  (whatever  may  be  their  acquired  gravity), 
and  reckless  of  muscular  power,  or  mental  reputation, 
enjoy  for  a  time  some  sort  of  exciting  play,  to  say 
whether  the  effects  are  not  only  congenial  both  to  body 
and  mind,  and  whether  they  do  not  believe,  that  under 
such  amusements,  frequently  repeated,  a  man  would 
perform  a  greater  amount  of  mental  labor,  and  continue 
longer  in  health  and  in  life,  than  he  would  to  proceed 
in  the  usual  manner,  of  either  taking  no  exercise  at 
at  all,  or  only  that  in  which  the  muscles  are  compelled 
by  force  to  perform  their  duty,  as  is  the  case  with  most 


NATURE    REQUIRES    EXCITING    EXERCISE.  241 

literary  men  ?  If  this  is  so,  and  which  we  are  confident 
that  not  a  man  who  has  made  the  trial  will  deny,  then  is 
it  not  the  moral,  and  even  religious  duty  of  every  student 
to  so  far  coincide  with  the  dictates  and  laws  of  nature, 
as  to  employ  every  means  which  are  not  immoral  in  their 
tendency,  to  enable  him  by  the  preservation  of  his  health 
and  life,  to  do  every  good  in  his  power  for  the  benefit  of 
his  fellow-man  ? 

76 1.  Says  the  pious  and  learned  Dr.  Cheyne,  "  The 
studious,  the  contemplative,  the  valetudinarian,  and  those 
of  weak  nerves,  if  they  aim  at  health,  and  long  life,  must 
make  exercise  in  a  good  air,  a  part  of  their  religion." 

762.  A  man  who  believes  himself  to  be  a  useful  member 
of  community,  and  who  becomes  conscious  that  his  occu- 
pation, whatever  it  may  be,  requires  laxation,  and  that  if 
he  does  not  indulge  in  it,  his  health  will  suffer,  and  his 
life  will  be  endangered,  -would  certainly  be   considered 
by  himself  and  by  others,  as  wanting  in   a  moral  duty, 
if  he  neglected  such  relaxation.    Under  such  circumstances, 
no  one  would  doubt  what  would  be  the  duty  of  a  mechanic, 
both  with  respect  to  his  family  and  his  country ;  and  if 
the  same  moral  rule  holds  with  respect  to  literary  men 
and  ministers,  then  they  are   as  much  bound  to  employ 
brain-exciting  means  to  preserve  their  mental  vigor,  as  the 
mechanic  is  to  relax  from  his  labor,  for  it  has  been  shown, 
we  think,  that  no  other  means  will  effectually  answer  this 
purpose. 

763.  Effects  of  incessant  Mental  Labor. — On  this  sub- 
ject, the  author  of  this  work  speaks  from  experience,  and 
therefore  knows  that  he  tells  the  truth.     For,  having  tried 
the  ordinary  routine  of  exercise,  such   as  wood-sawing, 
gardening,  &c.,  he  has  been  compelled,  against  his  form- 
er prejudices,  to  resort  to  "  field-sports,"  with  his  pointer 
and   gun,  not  only  as  the  means   by  which  he  has  been 
enabled  to  continue  in  a  sedentary  and  studious  profession, 
but   also    to    preserve    himself  from   the    dreadful    con- 
sequences   of   nervous    excitability,    and    especially   from 
the   most   horrid    and    appalling   of  all    sensations,   that 
which  attends  palpitation  of  the  heart,  from  an  accumu- 
lation of  the  nervous  influence.     The  most  acute  pain  is 

21 


242  MENTAL    AND  PHYSICAL    EXERCISK. 

a  comfort,  and  even  a  pleasure,  when  compared  to  » 
feeling  from  which  the  sufferer  cannot  avoid  the  beliei 
that  his  heart  swells  to  twice  ,  the  natural  size,  occasion- 
ally turns  over,  backward  and  forward,  and  is  every 
instant  in  danger  of  bursting  open  and  spilling  its  vital 
contents  into  his  chest;  at  the  same  time  he  feels  that 
his  pulse  beats  half  a  dozen  strokes  in  a  moment,  and 
then  stands  still,  until  forced  by  the  stimulus  of  the  blood 
to  begin  the  same  rapid  motions  again.  And  yet  all  this, 
and  even  more  than  we  dare  to  describe  to  the  literary 
invalid,  is  according  to  the  woful  experience  of  the  one 
who  writes  this,  the  consequence  of  study  at  the  rate  of 
fourteen  hours  per  day,  for  a  series  of  months.  And  yet 
all  these  symptoms  were  unfelt  and  forgotten  during  the 
most  violent  exercise  in  which  the  mind  was  intensely  in- 
terested, viz,  field-sports. 

764.  Mere  Attention  to  Diet  of  little    Use. — A  spare 
diet,  omission  of  dinner,  vegetable  food,  bran  bread,  and 
indeed  all  the  remedies  which  the  science  of  abstemiousness 
can  suggest,  will  never  prove  antidotes  to  these  fearful 
sensations.     A  laborious  student,  like  a  laborious  workman, 
requires  nutriment,  nor  can  he  sustain  himself  in  his  lit- 
erary   pursuits   without   it.     It    is   true,    that   where   the 
muscles  are  little  exercised,  the  quantity  of  solid    food 
may  be   diminished;   but  he   who   goes   to   work    at    a 
difficult  piece   of  composition  with    a   hungry   stomach, 
will  never  finish  it  to  suit  himself  until  this  sensation  is 
satisfied. 

765.  An  easy  and  comfortable  state  of  the  animal  sys- 
tem is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  student,  and  so  far  as 
we  know,  this  is  only  to  be  attained  by  a  generous  diet, 
and  exciting  exercise,  according  to  the  wants  and  feelings 
of  the  subject. 

766.  As  the  use  of  medicine,  diet,  and  rules  of  conduct, 
without  muscular  action,  for  the  alleviation  of-  nervous 
palpitation,  they  are   worse   than  useless,  because   they 
offer  false  hopes  to  the  sufferer,  and  prevent  his  seeking 
the   proper   remedy   in   season.     And   we    hereby   warn 
those  into  whose  hands  these  remarks  may  fall,  and  who 
are  thus  afflicted,  never  to  be  caught  by  such  chaff  as 
bran  bread  and  its  adjuvants,  as  a  remedy  for  what  can 


NATURE   REQUIRES   EXCITING   EXERCISE.  243 

only  be  cured  by  muscular  motion.  You  may  starve  your- 
selves to  skeletons,  and,  my  friends,  still  your  horrid  sensa- 
tions will  increase,  until  you  adopt  some  exciting  muscular 
exercise  as  a  remedy.  Let  your  stomachs  take  care  of 
themselves,  and  never  think  of  what  you  eat  or  drink,  ex- 
cept at  the  moment,  only  taking  the  precaution  k)  be  tem- 
perate in  both,  and  by  the  use  of  such  exercise,  repeated 
every  day,  and  increased  according  to  feelings  and  circum- 
stances, of  which  you  are  the  best  judges,  you  will  gradu- 
ally rid  yourselves  of  all  that  train  of  symptoms  incident 
to  nervous  excitability,  which  have  been  brought  on  by 
sedentary  and  mental  habits. 

767.  It  is  not  denied  that  there  are  great  differences  in 
the  amount  of  literary  labor  which  different  men  are  capa- 
ble of  performing  under  the  same  circumstances.     We 
are  perfectly  aware  that  there  are  Thomas  Tophams  in 
the  mental  as  well  as  in  the  muscular  departments  of  hu- 
man exertions.     But  we  write  for  those  who  labor  under 
the  common  laws  of  the   animal  economy, — those  laws 
which  ordinarily  govern  the  actions  and  powers  of  human 
beings ;  and  not  for  those,  whose  iron  constitutions  are 
equally  unhurt  by  any  amount  of  cerebral  or   muscular 
performances  which  it  is  in  their  power  to  accomplish. 
These  are  exceptions  to  the  general  laws  which  govern 
our  species,  and  to  such  we  have  nothing  to  say,  be- 
cause, not  suffering  from  their  labors,  they  require   no 
remedies. 

» 

768.  Cheerfulness  a  Remedy. — The  best  tempered  men, 
after  long  confinement  to  study,  and  who  take  no  pains 
to  cultivate    a  cheerful  acquaintance  with  their   friends, 
are  observed  to  grow  more  or  less  morose  in  their  dispo- 
sitions, until  they  finally  contract  such  a  habit  of  being 
out  of  humor,  especially  at  home,  as  to  become  such  dis- 
agreeable companions,  that  their  former  friends,  if  they 
call  upon  them  at  all,  do  it  as  a  matter  of  duty,  and  not 
for  the  purpose  of  having   a  few  moments  of  enlivening 
conversation,  as  formerly.     Of  this  disposition,  the  subject 
himself  often  becomes  sensible,  which  discovery,  instead 
of  showing  him  the  necessity  of  relaxation,  and  joining 
in  cheerful  society  as  a  remedy,  too  often  only  proves  a 


MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

source  of  vexation,  which  increases  rather  than  alleviates 
the  evil. 

769.  Now  both  moroseness  and  cheerfulness  are  often 
acquired  habits,  arising  from  the  circumstances  in  which 
the  person  is  placed.      Let  one,  for  instance,  to  whom 
nature  has  given  a  pleasant  disposition,  be  so  situated  in 
life   as  to  be  constantly  perplexed  with  its  cares,  or  let 
him  be  under  the  necessity  of  pursuing  studies  which  do 
not  interest  his  mind,  and  which,  therefore,  are  a  source 
of  vexation  to  him  ;  and  the  contracted  brow  will  become 
habitual ;  and  the  vexed  spirit  which   it    indicates  will 
finally  become  so  far  a  second  nature,  as  to  be  retained, 
even  long  after  the  circumstances  which  produced  these 
unhappy   results   have   ceased.       Such   is   the  force   of 
habit. 

770.  On  the  contrary,  we  often  see  those  whose  dispo- 
sitions are  far  from  being  naturally  pleasant,  but  who, 
mixing  with  enlivening  society,  and  being  placed  in  such 
conditions  in  life  as  to  escape  its  corroding  cares  and  per- 
plexities, finally  become  agreeable,  and  even  courteous 
companions,  having  acquired  happy  dispositions,  in  conse- 
quence of  being  constantly  pleased  with  their  own  condi- 
tions and  circumstances. 

771.  But  whatever  their  conditions  in  life  may  be,  it  is 
undoubtedly  the  duty  of  all  persons  to  cultivate  cheerful 
and  happy  dispositions.     Christians  in  an  especial  manner 
are  called  upon  to  rejoice — to  set  examples  of  a  happy 
state  of  mind,  and  to  show  by  their  countenances  and- ac- 
tions, that  they  are  contented  with  the  lot  in  which  Provi- 
dence has  cast  them.     A  sour,  crabbed  Christian,  presents 
a  combination  of  elements  so  heterogeneous,  that  the  world 
are  always  doubtful  whether  they  ever  exist  in  the  same 
person.     How,  indeed,  do  such  adorn  the  doctrines  they 
profess  ? 

772.  It  is  true,  that  there  are  afflictions,  under  which, 
for  a  time,  a  happy  countenance  would  betray  a  want  of 
common  feeling,  and  therefore  would  be  unbecoming  and 
improper ;  but  under  all  the  ordinary  cares  and  perplexi- 
ties of  life,  of  which  every  one  has  more  or  less,  we  are 
bound   by   the   duties   we   owe   each   other,   as   well  as 
ourselves,  to  preserve  and  cultivate  a  cheerful  spirit  and 
disposition,   and   aside    from   levity  of  conversation,    or 


NATURE  REQUIRES  EXCITING  EXERCISE.  245 

action,  we  cannot  see  the  immorality  or  impropriety  of  so 
far  giving  way  to  the  dictates  of  nature  as  to  carry  our 
pleasantries  even  to  mirth,  let  our  ages  or  professions  be 
what  they  way. 

773.  Laughing  a  proper  and  healthful  Exercise. — Man 
is  the  only  laughing  animal  which  the  whole  terrestrial 
creation  affords ;  and  in  the  young,  the  indulgence  of  this 
natural  propensity,  in  proper  places,  and  under  proper 
circumstances,  is  universally  approbated ;  youth  being 
considered  by  all  as  the  appropriate  season  of  innocent 
merriment.  But  there  are  those  who  look  upon  the  action 
of  the  risible  muscles,  as  being  incompatible  with  the 
gravity  and  solemn  dignity  of  certain  ages  and  profes- 
sions ;  and  therefore  believe  that  such  ought  always  to 
suppress  their  lively  and  facetious  thoughts,  and  expres- 
sions, lest  they  should  excite  laughter  in  others,  or  give 
way  to  it  themselves. 

774.  Now  we  have  no  desire  that  any  one  should  do 
violence  to  his  conscience  in  this  respect,  but  while,  aside 
from  improper  levity,  we  cannot  imagine  from  what  source 
moral  evil  would  come  in  consequence  of  the  exercise  of 
the  muscles  of  risibility  in  any  human  being  whatever,  it 
is  certain  that  the  act  of  laughter  conduces  to  the  health 
of  the  system,  by  the  motion  it  gives  to  certain  muscles,  as 
well  as  by  the  attendant  relaxation  of  the  mind,  and  there- 
fore, as  a  mere  secular  action,  is  a  very  proper  exercise  for 
people  of  studious  and  sedentary  habits. 

775.  The  muscles  concerned  in  moderate  laughter  are 
chiefly  the  diaphragm,  and  those  between  the  ribs,  but 
when  the  action  becomes  violent,  those  of  the  back  and 
chest  are  thrown  into  motion,  and  the  whole  frame  is 
shaken ;  the  lungs  being  at  the  same  time  alternately  filled 
with,  and  exhausted  of  air,  by  rapid  muscular  actions, 
which  sometimes  amount  nearly  to  convulsions,  thus  call- 
ing into  contractile  motion  all  the  muscles  of  the  trunk, 
and  agitating  the  entire  assemblage  of  the  visceral  organs, 
thus,  perhaps,  detaching  any  adhesions  that  might  be  in- 
cipient in  these  parts,  and  at  any  rate,  giving  vigor  to  the 
actions  of  the  pipes  and  strainers,  the  secreting  and  the 
absorbing  surfaces,  the  functions  of  which  are  so  neces- 

21* 


246  MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

sary,  that  not   only  health,  but  even  life  itself  depends 
upon  them. 

776.  "  Laughter"  says  Dr.  Willieh,  "  is  sometimes  the 
effect  of  joy ;  but  it  frequently  arises  from  a  sudden  dis- 
appointment of  the  mind,  when  directed  to  an  object, 
which,  instead  of  being  serious  and  important,  terminates 
unexpectedly  in  insignificance.  Within  the  bounds  of 
moderation,  laughter  is  a  salutary  emotion  ;  for  as  a  deep 
inspiration  of  air  takes  place,  which  is  succeeded  by  a 
short  and  frequently  repeated  expiration,  the  lungs  are 
filled  with  a  great  quantity  of  blood,  and  gradually  emp- 
tied, so  that  its  circulation  through  the  lungs  is  thus  bene- 
ficially promoted.  It  manifests  a  similar  effect  on  the  or- 
gans of  digestion.  Pains  in  the  stomach,  colics,  and  seve- 
ral other  complaints  that  could  not  be  relieved  by  other 
means,  have  been  frequently  removed  by  this.  In  many 
cases,  where  it  is  purposely  raised,  laughter  is  of  excellent 
service,  as  a  remedy  which  agitates  and  enlivens  the 
whole  frame.  Experience  also  furnishes  us  with  many 
remarkable  instances  where  obstinate  ulcers  of  the  lungs 
or  liver,  which  had  resisted  every  effort  of  medicine,  were 
happily  opened  and  cured  by  a  fit  of  laughter  artificially 
excited." 

777.  In  cases,  however,  where  the  conscience  is  against 
the  practice  of  laughing,  little  good  may  be  expected 
from  it. 


DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  MUSCULAR  EXERCISE. 

778.  There  is  a  great  difference,  in  the  amount  of  ex- 
ercise which  men  require,  depending  very  much  upon  con- 
stitution and  habit.  There  is  also  a  selection  to  be  made, 
with  respect  to  adaptation  to  the  mind,  since  what  would 
prove  exhilarating  to  some,  might  be  mere  drudgery  to 
others.  Those  who  require  muscular  recreation,  ought 
therefore  to  select  such  as  combine  excitement  with  con- 
venience; the  same  being  adapted,  with  respect  to  its 
greater  or  less  violence,  to  the  constitution  and  habits  of 
the  individual. 


FIELD-SPORTS.  247 


MANUAL   LABOR. 

779.  In  schools  for  manual  labor,  there  may  be  intro- 
duced employments  which  to  some,  will  in  a  degree  answer 
the  purposes  required.     But  these  must  be  varied,  so   as 
to  give  motion  to  the  muscles  in  different  parts  of  the 
body.     Plaining,  sawing,  turning  the  lathe,  turning  the 
auger,    and   chopping  with   the    axe,  will   in   succession 
bring  all  the  voluntary  muscles  into  play.     But  as  we 
have  seen,  unless  the  subject  can  contrive  to  make  all  these 
employments  exciting  to  the  mind,  very  little  advantage 
will  be  gained  from  them.     If  therefore  the  student  con- 
fines himself  to  such  kinds  of  exercise,  he  must  undertake 
the  construction  of  some  article  of  furniture,  requiring  the 
products  of  these  different  branches  of  labor  ;  and  if  several 
will  undertake  the  construction  of  the  same  article,  there 
will  be  produced  some  degree  of  excitement,  during  the 
progress  of  the  work,  by   a  comparison  of  the  different 
specimens  produced.     But  if  the  labor  is  not  sufficiently 
active  to  induce  general  and  profuse  perspiration,  especially 
in  the  warm  season,  little  good  to  the  debilitated  student 
may  be  expected  from  it. 

SCIENTIFIC   EXCURSIONS. 

780.  Excursions   into  the  country  on  foot,  especially 
among   woods    and   mountains,  in  search  of  insects,  or 
botanical  and  mineralogical  specimens,  to  those  who  are 
fond  of  natural  history,  produce  considerable  energy  of 
feeling  and  action ;  and  during  the  warm  season,  for  those 
who  live  in  cities  especially,  is   a  far  more  rational  and 
healthful  mode  of  spending  a  few  weeks,  than  the  more 
common  one  of  lounging  about  watering-places,  where  it  is 
often  found  that  there  are   neither  wholesome   lodging, 
wholesome  excitement,  nor  wholesome  exercise. 

FIELD-SPORTS. 

781.  Sporting  with  the  dog  and  gun,  and  especially 
with  a  well-trained  pointer,  afford  to  those  who  have  learn- 
ed to  "  shoot  on  the  wing,"  the  most  exciting  and  healthful 


248  MENTAL    AND    PHYSICAL    EXERCISE 

exercise.  In  whatever  light  people  who  are  ignorant 
of  this  mode  of  employing  their  mind,  and  muscles, 
may  look  upon  those  men  who  are  exhilarated  by  such 
"  boyish  sports,"  it  is  certain  that  those  who  have  enjoyed 
the  fine  flow  of  spirits  which  such  occasions  excite,  and 
especially  the  invigorating  consequences  thus  produced  on 
the  animal  system,  are  seldom  induced  to  think  that  such 
exercise  is  incompatible  with  the  gravity  of  age,  or 
office ;  but  more  generally  continue  the  practice,  so  long  as 
the  eye-sight  enables  them  to  see  the  game  distinctly. 

782.  To  the  lovers  of  the  dog  and  gun,  partridge,  quail, 
and  woodcock  shooting,  are  considered  the  most  exciting, 
and  healthful  of  all  muscular  exercise  ;  but  it  is  too  violent 
for   those  whose  systems    are  not   prepared   to  undergo 
considerable  fatigue,  though   the  literary  dyspeptic  will 
find,    after    a    few    experiments,    that    he    can    traverse 
woods,  bogs,  and  mountains,  with  a  degree  of  facility 
and  pleasure,  which  will  be  a  matter  of  surprise  to  him- 
self.      Students   of  athletic   constitutions   are   sometimes 
compelled  to  employ  exercise  of  proportionate  violence ; 
the  ordinary  routine  of  riding,  sawing  wood,  &c.,  being 
insufficient  to  produce  the  effects  required,  even  though 
they  might  excite  the  brain. 

783.  A  gentleman  well  known  to  the  author,  who  left 
an  active,  for  a  sedentary  and  mental  employment,  found 
that  sawing  and  splitting  all  the  wood  for  his  family,  did 
very  little  toward  preventing  his  nervous,  from  predom- 
inating over  his  muscular  system.     The  effect  of  this  ex- 
ercise was  to  fatigue  the  muscles  of  his  arms  and  fingers, 
so  that  it  was  often  difficult  for  him  to  resume  his  pen  on 
this   account.      He   found   also   that   tiring   the  muscles 
did  nothing  toward  relieving  the  mind;    nor  was  there 
sufficient  excitement   in   the  employment,  or   motive   in 
the  end  to  be  accomplished,  to  induce  its  continuance 
until  perspiration  ensued.     Finding  therefore,  that  there 
would  soon  be  an  absolute  necessity  for  his  either  relin- 
quishing the  profession   he  had   adopted,  or  of  seeking 
some  more  exciting  and  athletic  exercise,  he  returned  to 
his  boyish  practices,  and  partook  himself  to  woodcock 
and  partridge-shooting  as   the  most  convenient,   and  at 
the  same  time,  as  that  kind  of  recreation  from  which 


FIELD-SPORTS.  249 

there  was  the  greatest  hope  of  relief.  In  this  he  has  not 
been  disappointed,  but  has  been  able  to  perform  much 
more  mental  labor  than  when  he  spent  the  whole  day 
over  his  writing-desk.  Two  hours  per  day,  from  five  to 
seven  P.  M.,  in  the  summer  season,  spent  in  this  manner, 
with  a  good  pointer,  will  give  all  the  exercise  which  mid- 
dle-aged men,  of  ordinary  constitutions,  require.  During 
this  time,  the  exhilaration  of  the  mind,  and  the  motions 
of  the  muscles,  are  constant ;  not  a  little  of  the  interest 
arising  from  the  wonderful  instinct  and  sagacity  which  a 
well-bred  pointer  dog  exhibits  in  the  field,  and  which  the 
lover  of  rural  sports,  however  often  he  has  witnessed  it, 
never  sees  with  indifference.  The  admirer  of  nature,  who 
for  the  first  time  beholds  the  phenomena  which  these 
animals  exhibit,  when  "  beating  the  field,"  and  "  standing 
at  a  point,"  wrill  not  only  be  intensely  interested,  but 
often  struck  with  astonishment  at  what  he  sees.  The  dog 
runs  backward  and  forward,  a  little  before  his  master, 
with  his  nose  elevated  above  the  grass  or  bushes,  until  he 
scents  the  bird  (which  is  always  on  the  ground),  when  he 
walks  slowly,  and  carefully,  to  within  a  rod  or  -two  of  it, 
and  then  stands  perfectly  still,  with  his  nose  pointing  to 
the  exact  spot  where  the  game  lies.  The  sportsman  pro- 
ceeding to  the  spot,  sends  the  dog  forward  to  "flush"  the 
bird,  and  shoots  it  as  it  flies,  the  dog  again  standing  until 
the  game  falls,  when  he  bring  it  and  lays  it  at  his  mas- 
ter's feet. 

784.  In  these  dogs  the  pointing  is  a  natural  property, 
or  perhaps  an  acquired  instinct,  and  may  be  seen  in  young 
animals  of  good  blood,  without  the  least  training.     The 
training,  therefore,  does  not  consist  in  learning  the  animal 
to  point,  but  only  to  obey  the  commands  of  his  master, 
with  respect  to  the  moment  of   flushing  the  game,  of 
bringing  it,  and  of  keeping  within  a  certain  distance  from 
him,  &c. 

785.  And  now  who  can  account  for  the  reason  why 
this  extraordinary  property  was  conferred  on  this  animal, 
unless  it  was  intended  by  the  Giver  to  be  employed  by 
man  in  the  manner  we  have  described ;  for  in  no  other 
respect  can  it  be  of  the  least  use  to  the  dog  or  his  master. 
We  cannot  but  believe,  therefore,  that  there  was  design  in 


250         MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

this  peculiar  endowment,  and  that  it  was  intended  to  be 
made  useful  to  man. 

786.  It  is  true  that  there  are  objections  to  this  kind  of 
sport.  To  those  situated  in  large  towns,  it  would  perhaps 
be  nearly  impracticable  as  a  daily  exercise ;  and  besides, 
there  is,  at  least,  a  semblance  of  cruelty  in  it.  With  re- 
spect to  the  latter,  howTever,  the  conscience  may  be  greatly 
relieved  by  adhering  to  two  rules,  which  true  sportsmen 
never  violate.  The  first  is,  never  to  shoot  at  any  bird 
which  is  not  fit  for  the  table ;  and  the  second,  never  to 
shoot  at  any  bird  that  is  fit  for  the  table,  unless  it  be  on 
the  wing.  By  adopting  these  rules,  the  beginner  will 
have  to  account  chiefly  for  motives,  and  intentions,  since 
he  wrill  seldom  be  troubled  by  seeing  his  bird  fall.  Still, 
however,  the  excitement  does  not  entirely  fail  from  want 
of  success  ;  and  if  the  tyro  will  persevere  for  a  few  days, 
or  until  he  has  "  bagged  "  a  few  "  brace"  of  birds,  he  will 
then  find  his  conscience  perfectly  at  rest  on  the  subject  of 
field-sports,  both  with  regard  to  intentions  and  overt  acts. 
Sir  Walter  Scott  was  enabled  to  continue  his  great  mental 
efforts  by  the  use  of  this  kind  of  exercise. 


ANGLING. 

787.  Those  who  do  not  require  the  violent  exercise  in- 
separable from  sporting  with  the  dog  and  gun,  may  per- 
haps find   as  interesting  a  recreation  in  angling ;  which, 
ever  since  the  days  of  that  father  of  "  brook-sports,"  Izaak 
Walton,  has  never  wanted  most  honorable  patrons.     And 
it  must  be  confessed,  that  on  several  accounts  this  is  hard- 
ly excelled  by  any  other  recreative  employment.     Indeed, 
we  have  the  pleasure  of  knowing  many   a  trout-fisher, 
whose  present  enjoyments  are  greatly  heightened  by  this 

.exercise,  and  whose  useful  lives  will  undoubtedly  be  pro- 
longed by  its  continuance. 

788.  One  of  these,  a  gentleman  who  has  retired  from 
an  active  employment,  often  expresses  his  thankfulness 
that  he  is  attached  to  this  recreation,  considering  it,  inde- 
pendently of  the  pleasure  it  confers,  as  one  of  the  most 
efficient  causes  of  the  fine  state  of  health  which  he  enjoys. 


ANGLING.  251 

789.  To  those  who  have  no  feeling  on  this  subject, 
angling  might  be  supposed  to  want  that  kind  of  excite- 
ment, which  we  have*  described  as  necessary  to  healthful 
exercise.  But  if  such  a  one  will  only  just  touch  on  the 
subject  in  presence  of  a  "  lover  of  the  rod,"  he  will  find 
his  mistake  :  for  there  is  certainly  not  a  more  enthusiastic 
body  of  men  on  the  subject  of  sportive  recreations,  or 
rather  recreation,  than  the  anglers ;  and  to  these,  there- 
fore, it  presents  a  source  of  all  the  mental  exhilaration, 
both  as  a  conservative  and  curative  means,  which  could 
be  desired. 

790.  But  the  uninitiated  and  the  ignorant  are  ready  to 
inquire,  "  From  what  source  can  this  interest,  this  excite- 
ment, arise  ?"  To  which  inquiry  we  will  reply,  for  we  have 
more  than  once  been  witness  to  the  intense  feeling  which 
men  of  gravity,  and  of  sound  minds,  exhibit  on  such  oc- 
casions. 

791.  In  the  first  place,  then,  an  early  breakfast,  and  a 
ride  of  several  miles  on  a  May  morning,  with  the  expecta- 
tion of  a  fine  day  (that  is,  a  little  cloudy),  and  fine  luck, 
are  preliminaries  by  no  means  wanting  in  interest. 

792.  When  arrived   at   the    trout-brook,  there  is  the 
preparation  of  inserting  the  joints  of  the  poles,  of  fixing  the 
lines,  and   seeing  to  the  bait,  during  which  nothing  else 
can  be  thought  of.     But  now  the  chief  source  of  mental 
excitement  begins. 

793.  The  hook  all  baited,  and  ready,  is  thrown  into 
the  water,  and   perhaps  a  bite  is  instantly  felt ;  or  as  is 
sometimes  the  case,  possibly  the  trout  may  jump  out  of  the 
water  and  seize  it ;  and  who  could  avoid  feeling  at  such 
a  beginning  ?     What  cold  heart  could  remain  unmoved 
with  such  a  crown  of  success  ?    But  if  no  fish  jumps  up  to 
welcome  the  bait ;  if  no  bite,  not  even   a  nibble  is  felt, 
still  the  excitement  does  not  fail,  for  what  is  not  realized  is 
every  instant  expected,  and  therefore,  from  the  very  nature 
of  the  case,  the  mind  is  constantly  occupied,  the  brain  con- 
tinually excited,  and  nothing  but  the  expected  bite  can  be 
thought  of. 

794.  And  then,  after  an  early  breakfast,  a  ride  and  a 
walk  along  the  limpid,  gurgling  stream,  with  the  mind  in- 
tensely fixed  on  an  object — then  comes  on  an  animal  sen- 


252  MENTAL    AND    PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

sation,  which,  after  a  while,  predominates  over  the  mental 
feelings  of  the  keenest — the  most  ardent  sportsmen,  and 
the  cold  dinner  is  taken  with  the  keenness  of  appetite,  and 
a  degree  of  enjoyment,  known  only  to  those  whose  gastric 
organs  have  been  prepared  by  such  means. 

795.  After  the  day's  sport  is  over,  still  the  interest  does 
not  cease,  for  the  parties  recount  to  each  other,  on  the  way 
home,  the  pleasures  and  circumstances  of  the  day.  And 
finally,  after  such  a  day  of  exercise,  both  of  mind  and 
body,  there  follows  such  a  night  of  repose  as  the  stayer-at- 
home  cannot  appreciate — and  such  a  breakfast  in  the 
morning  as  princes  seldom  enjoy. 


RIDING. 

796.  "  Of  all  exercises,"  says  Dr.  Ticknor,  "  riding  is 
most  conducive  to  health,  and  to  vigor  of  the  constitution, 
but  as  a  good  thing  may  be  improperly  or  imprudently 
used,  so  riding  sometimes  produces  an  effect  contrary  to 
what   is   intended.     Those  who  are  not    accustomed  to 
riding,  are  most  apt  to  suffer — the  pleasure  and  exhilara- 
tion being  so  great,  that  fatigue  or  exhaustion  is  induced 
when   it    is    least    expected.     In   cold   weather,   people 
unused  to  carriage  exercise,  are  apt  to  think  the  same 
quantity  of  clothing  necessary  in  walking,  wrill  be  an  ade- 
quate protection  wlien  riding.     Often  a  person  will  not 
experience  a  sensation  of  cold,  he  will  not  be  aware  that 
his  body  is  becoming  chilled,  till  he  alights  from  his  car- 
riage, or  till  he  approaches  the  fire,  when  he  becomes  fully 
sensible  that  his  ride  has  been  too  protracted.     Those  who 
are  in  good  health,  do  not  often  experience  any  more  than 
a  temporary  inconvenience  from  this  cause,  but  in  the  deli- 
cate, it  insufficient  to  be  followed  by  a  serious  illness.     In 
summer,  a  drive  toward  nightfall,  is  truly  delicious,  and  it 
is  believed  to  be  conducive  to  health — and  so  indeed,  it  is, 
with  due  precaution — but  at  such  times  females  are  gen- 
erally thinly  clad,  and  a  thin  dress  affords  little  protection 
from  the  damp  and  chilly  air  of  an  evening." 

797.  "  There  seems,  in  the  present  age,  a  wonderful 
propensity  to  be  hurried  through  the  world  ;  not  only  is  it 
convenient  for  the  man  of  business  to  be  transported  by 


RIDING.  253 

steam  at  the  rate  of  from  fifteen  to  fifty  miles  ai>  hour, 
but  there  is  no  pleasure  in  driving  one's  «  own  hired' 
horse  at  a  pace  of  less  than  ten  miles  in  the  same  space 
of  time.  Being  thus  hurried  away,  Pegasus-like,  a  just 
equivalent  to  sitting  in  the  open  air  when  the  wind  blows, 
in  sailor's  phrase,  a  :  stiff  breeze,'  and  to  do  this  at  sunset 
would  be  thought  the  very  extreme  of  imprudence.  There 
can  be  no  objection  to  any  man's  riding  with  all  the  speed 
his  horse  can  make ;  but  it  were  wisdom  to  shield  himself 
against  a  breeze  of  his  own  raising. 

798.  "  Equitation,  or  riding  on  horseback,  is  a  different 
exercise  from  the  preceding ;  and  fast  riding  is  not  only 
active  exercise,  but  severe  labor.     This  is  one  of  the  most 
noble,  and  manly,   and  healthful  exercises  that  can  be 
imagined ;  and  as  it  formed  a  part  of  the  education  of  the 
Spanish  youth,  so  ought  it  to  be  made  a  part  of  the  educa- 
tion of  the  young  of  both  sexes,  in  our  country.     Riding  on 
horseback,  exercises  every  muscle,  and  every  organ  in  the 
body ;  and  causes  the  blood  to  circulate  so  freely  that  in 
cold  weather  this  is  one  of  the  most  comfortable  ways  in 
which  a  person  can  travel,  provided  he  can  bear  the  exer- 
cise without  fatigue.     This  may  seem  paradoxical  to  those 
who  never  have  made  the  experiment,  but  the  evidence  of 
those  who  have  tested  it  for  several  successive  years,  in  all 
weathers,  and  at  all  seasons,  has  established  the  fact  to 
my  own  satisfaction,  that  at  the  pace  of  seven  or  eight 
miles  an  hour,  no  person  would  feel  cold  in  unusually 
severe  winter  weather."- — Philosophy  of  Livi?ig,  by  Caleb 
Ticknor,  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  Harper's  Family  Library,  No. 
77,  p.  202. 

799.  We  will  add  to  the  foregoing  judicious  remarks  of 
Dr.  Ticknor,  that   riding  on  horseback,  with  agreeable 
company,   and  on   a  spirited,   well-trained    animal,   does 
afford    exercise    at    once    agreeable,    exhilarating,    and 
manly.     It  also  has  the  advantage  of  bringing  all  the  prin- 
cipal muscles  into  play,  and  of  shaking  the  viscera  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  give  a  vigorous  action  to  the  pipes 
and  strainers  throughout  the  system,  and  perhaps  to  de- 
tach any  little  adhesions  that  might  be  taking  place  among 
them. 

800.  A  journey  on  horseback,  for  a  nervous  invalid,  is 
undoubtedly  one  of  the  best  means  of  restoration,  not  how 

22 


254         MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

ever,  merely  on  account  of  the  muscular  exercise,  or  the 
wholesome  air,  but  because  there  is  a  constant  succession 
of  new  and  exciting  objects,  which  as  constantly  exercises 
the  mind,  and  without  requiring  so  much  attention  as  at  any 
time  to  create  mental  fatigue.  Such  a  degree  of  mental 
excitement,  with  the  muscular  exercise,  and  pure  atmo- 
sphere of  the  country,  undoubtedly  conspire  to  form  a  train 
of  invigorating  means  hardly  to  be  expected  from  any 
which  can  be  employed  at  home. 

801.  It  is  entirely  in  consequence  of  the  action  of  the 
brain  thus  excited,  or  the  employment  of  the  mind,  ty  the 
succession  of  new  objects,  that   a  journey  produces  such 
different  results  on  the  health  of  the  invalid,  from  that  to 
be  obtained  by  ihe  employment  of  the  same  amount  of  the 
same  kind  of  exercise  at  one  place.     The  fact  itself,  is  well 
known,  otherwise  why  do  physicians  order  their  patients  to 
take  journeys  far  from  home,  when  with  respect  to  the 
comforts  and  habits  of  life,  they  could  be  much  better  pro- 
vided for  there,  than  abroad.     Why  not  then  ride  thirty  or 
forty  miles  a  day,  one  way  or  another,  and  sleep  at  home, 
to  which  every  invalid  is  attached,  and  to  most  of  whom 
the  leaving  of  their  beds,  rooms,  and  families,  is  such  a  trial 
as  is  often  not  easily  to  be  overcome.     From  all  we  have 
said  of  the  connexion  which  exists  between  the  brain  and 
muscles,  the  reason  is  obvious  why  little  or  no  improvement 
may  be  expected  from  such  exercise.     The  patient  expects 
nothing  new — he  has  already  seen  over  and  over  again  all 
that  he  expects  to  see  during  his  ride ;  he  therefore  begins 
his  daily  task  without   excitement,  and  going  through  it 
without  interest,  arrives  at  the  place  whence  he  started, 
i'atigued  in  body  and  mind,  and  discouraged  not  only  because 
he  finds  no  improvement,  but  because  he  dreads  the  idea  of 
having  to  perform  the  same  task  on  the  morrow.  - 

802.  On  the  contrary,  during  a  journey,  there  is  a  con- 
stant change  of  scenery,  or  of  objects,  or  of  persons,  which 

*is  just  sufficient  to  keep  the  mind  in  gentle  and  salubrious 
excitement,  and  which  acting  through  the  brain,  supplies 
the  muscular  system  with  the  requisite  degree  of  ner- 
vous power,  and  thus  the  two  systems  (the  muscular 
and  nervous)  are  kept  in  a  state  of  pleasant  and  healthy 
equilibrium,  which  conspires  gradually  to  bring  both  into 
a  condition  of  firmness  and  health.  The  patient,  after 


HIDING.  255 

such  a  day's  journey,  feels  far  less  fatigue  than  when  his 
exercise  is  without  excitement,  and  he  becomes  satisfied 
that  the  means  he  is  employing  answers  the  purpose  in- 
tended, £nd  therefore,  instead  of  being  discouraged,  he  is 
filled  with  the  hope  of  a  final,  and  speedy  recovery. 

803.  A  highly  intelligent  female  invalid,  whose  circum- 
stances allowed  her  to  select  the  best  means  of  improving 
her  health,  employed  for  a  considerable  time  daily   exer- 
cise, either  on  horseback  or  in  an  open  carriage,  in  the 
form  of  little  excursions  from  her  residence.     From  this 
method,  however,  and  for  the  reasons   above  stated,  she 
obtained  little  else  than  fatigue,  listlessness,  and  discourage- 
ment.      Having  relinquished  it,  therefore,  for  a  journey 
through  a  fine  country,  at  a  good  season  of  the  year,  she 
returned  so  much  improved  as  to  astonish  her  friends,  as 
well  as  herself,  that  such  a  change  could  have  been  effect- 
ed in  so  short  a  period  :  and  nearly  every  reader  will  no 
doubt  remember  similar  cases,  which  have  come  within  his 
own  knowledge. 

804.  Exciting  Exercise  absolutely  necessary   to   the 
studious. — And  now,  in  closing  this  part  of  our  subject, 
we  cannot  but  desire  to  impress  it  upon  the  minds  of  those 
into  whose  hands  this  volume  may  fall,  and  who  are  des- 
tined to  spend  their  lives  in  literary  pursuits,  or  in  clerical 
labors,  that  an  uninterrupted   and   long-continued  course 
of  study,  or  of  ministerial  duties,  without  exciting  relaxa- 
tion, is,  from  the  very  organization  of  our  systems,  in 
most  cases,   absolutely  impossible.     The  kind  of  exercise 
must  of  course  depend  on  the  choice,  or  taste,  or  muscular 
powers  of  the  individual  only,  to  answer  any  good  pur- 
pose ;  as  a  restorative  means,  it  must  be  exciting  to  the 
brain,  and  if  possible,  be  repeated  every  day,  or  at  least 
every   two   or    three   days,   until  the  equilibrium  of  the 
system  is  restored,  and  when  this  is  done,  must  be  con- 
tinued habitually  in  order  to  insure  a  permanency  of  good 
health. 

805.  The  above  considerations  and  remarks,  with  re- 
spect to  exercise  in  adults,  although  they  do  not  apply  im- 
mediately to  youth,  for  whose  instruction  this  work  is 
chiefly  intended,  still  it  is  hoped  will  not  be  deemed  en- 
tirely out  of  place,  since  it  is  highly  important  that  the 


256  MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

rising  generation  should  possess  proper  conceptions  with 
respect  to  the  arduous  duties  of  the  clerical  office,  and  also 
that  our  young  men,  who  are  destined  to  follow  the  pur- 
suits of  science,  or  literature,  should  at  the  commencement, 
know  the  importance  of  habitually  using  so  much  corpo- 
real exercise,  as  to  prevent  their  falling  into  that  nervous 
and  debilitated  condition,  under  which  but  too  many  of 
their  brethren  are  now  laboring. 

806.  Sir  Walter  Scott.— Sir  Walter  Scott,  who  pro- 
duced in  the  course  of  little  more  than  twenty-five  years 
seventy -four  volumes  of  original  romances,  beside  histo- 
ries, poems,  biographies,  critiques,   and  dissertations,  so 
numerous,  that  so  far  as  we  know,  their  number  has  not 
been  computed,  and  who   at  the  same   period  employed 
many  hours  every  day  in  other  mental  labors,  still  found 
time  to  take  a  great  deal  of  amusing  muscular  exercise. 
Beside  his  dogs  and  gun,  of  which,  being  a  capital  shot, 
he  was  exceedingly  fond,  and  with  which  he  exercised 
himself  with  all  the  keenness  and   ardor  of   a  first-rate 
sportsman,  he  also,  nearly  every  day  in  the  season,  did 
something  in  the  practice  of  cultivation,  never  taking  a 
walk  about  his  grounds  without  a  weeding  or  pruning 
hook  in  his  hand,  thus  always,  even  when  most  at  leisure, 
placing  before  himself  some  object  of  amusement,  or  mo- 
tive of  action. 

807.  It  is  well  known,  that  for  a  long  time  there  was  a 
mystery  with  respect  to  the  author  of  the  Waverly  Nov- 
els, and  it  now  appears  that  the  apparently  constant  occu- 
pation of   Scott,  as  clerk  of  the  sessions,   and   in  other 
employments,  was  considered  as  a  sufficient  reason  why  it 
was  not  possible  that  he  could  have  been  their  author. 
"  In  order  to  thicken  this  mystification,"  says  one  of  his 
biographers,  "  Scott,' instead  of  being  always  at  his  wri- 
ting-desk, as  might  have  been  expected  in  so  voluminous 
an  author,  seemed  through  the  whole  day  and  evening  to 
have  his  time  perfectly  at  command,  for  the  routine  either 
of  business  or  amusement."     "  Three  hours  per  diem"  as 
he  often  observed,  "  are  quite  enough  for  literary  labor,  if 
only  one's  attention  is  kept  so  long  undistr acted ;  and  the 
best  time  for  this  is  in  the  morning,  when  other  people  are 
asleep." 


RIDING.  257 

808.  In  conformity  to  this  practice,  Sir  Waiter  Scott 
used  to  produce  twenty-four  pages  of  quarto  manuscript 
between  the  time  of  rising,  and  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
when  the  court  opened,  and  at  which  time  his  office  re- 
quired his  presence.     This  was  closely  written,  in  a  small 
hand,  and  ready  for  the  press.     It  is  probable,  however, 
that    no    authorities   were    consulted    during    this    time, 
and  that  he  previously  had  the  matter  all  ready  in  his 
mind,  otherwise  such  performances,  if  continued  for  any 
length   of   time,  must  be   considered   as  little  less  than 
miraculous. 

809.  We  have  cited  Scott  to  show  the  necessity,  and 
the  practice  of  active  amusements  in  a  man  of  letters,  be- 
cause his  writings  are  generally  known,  and  because  it 
might  be  supposed  by  some,  that  the  great  number  of  his 
productions,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  they  followed 
each  other,  precluded  the  possibility  of  his  spending  any 
considerable  portion  of  time  in  bodily  exercise,  whereas 
we  see,  that  this  was,  at  least  for  a  time,  the  very  means 
by  which  he  was  enabled  to  perform  such  extraordinary 
mental  efforts.    Nor  was  Scott  an  exception  in  this  respect, 
to  the  practice  of  other  British  authors,  and    especially 
those  of  Scotland,  who,  whatever   their  ages,  or  offices 
may  be,  are  in  the  habit  of  making  play  a  part  of  their 
daily  duties. 

810.  But  notwithstanding  Scott  understood  so  well  the 
principles  which  ought  to  govern  students  with  respect  to 
muscular  exercise,  and  for  a  long  time  reduced  them  to 
practice,  still  his  pecuniary  embarrassments  forced  him  to 
such  unparalleled  mental  exertions  as  finally  to  affect  the 
cerebral  and  nervous  functions  in  such  a  manner  as  to  in- 
duce a  morbid  condition  of  the  whole  system,  from  which 
he  never  recovered.     So  that  the  noble  part  by  which  he 
distinguished  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  finally  became 
the  instrument  by  which  he  was  destined  to  perish.     A 
striking  commentary  on  the  principle  that  the  equilibrium 
of  the  nervous  and  muscular  systems  cannot  be  deranged 
with  impunity. 

811.  It  has  been  not  unaptly  observed,  by  more  than 
one  of  our  transatlantic  brethren,  on  visiting  this  country, 
and  noticing  our  manners  and  habits,  that, "  the  Americans 

22* 


258         MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

are  v  ery  complete  masters  in  the  art  of  working,  but  they 
do  not  yet  understand  the  art  of  playing"  This  is  un- 
doubtedly true ;  the  newness  of  our  country,  originally,  and 
some  parts  of  it  at  the  present  time,  making  it  necessary 
for  all  classes  to  labor  more  or  less  with  their  hands,  and 
to  this  circumstance  the  present  prosperity  and  vast  enter- 
prise of  our  nation  are  in  a  great  measure  owing.  It  is  from 
the  same  cause,  also,  that,  as  a  nation,  we  have  acquired 
the  almost  universal  sentiment,  that  a  man  ought  to  labor 
constantly,  and  with  little  or  no  relaxation  so  long  as  he 
is  able,  let  his  occupation  be  what  it  may  ;  and  this  opin- 
ion is  followed  by  a  practice  nearly  as  universal.  Now, 
so  far  as  muscular  labor  is  concerned,  this  practice  is  not 
incompatible  with  the  prospect  of  a  long  life  and  robust 
health,  and  therefore,  whether  followed  from  necessity  or 
for  profit,  or  pleasure,  seldom  so  deranges  the  balance  be- 
tween the  muscular  and  nervous  systems  as  to  induce  pre- 
mature evil  to  either. 

812.  But  if,  instead  of  depending  upon  foreign  authors 
for  our  literature  and  science — if  we  are  to  look  to  the 
pens  of  our  own  sons  and  daughters  for  boofe  of  instruc- 
tion for  the  rising  generation,  and  for  even  but  a  small 
portion  of  the  mental  food  which  this  vast  republic  re- 
quires, then  it  is  certain  that  so  far  as  this  class  is  con- 
cerned, the  sentiment  requiring  perpetual  labor  must  be 
changed,  for,  as  we  have  abundantly  shown,  the  Creator 
did  not  form  man  for  incessant  mental  labor. 


PHYSICAL  AND   MENTAL  EDUCATION  OF  YOUTH. 

813.  The  proper  use  of  the  muscles  consists  in  their 
alternate  contraction  and  relaxation,  and  this  is  one  of  the 
most  imperious  laws  of  the  animal  economy.  If  the  mus- 
cles are  allowed  to  remain  in  a  state  of  relaxation  for  any 
considerable  time,  they  become  incapable  of  vigorous  con- 
traction, as  we  have  already  stated.  The  cases  of  prison- 
ers loig  confined  in  cells,  or  in  chains,  so  that  they  could 
not  ase  their  limbs,  have  often  presented  lamentable  illus- 
trr  Jons  of  this  principle.  Such  persons,  without  any  posi- 
t'  ve  disease,  become  unable  to  walk,  or  even  to  stand,  from 
mere  debility  of  the  muscular  system.  The  deplorable  case 


EDUCATION   OF   YOUTH  259 

of  poor  Caspar  Hauser,  who  was  confined  from  his  infancy 
in  a  small  dungeon,  and  whose  story  is  everywhere  known, 
presented  a  still  more  striking  and  miserable  example  of 
the  same  principle. 

814.  On  the  contrary,  if  relaxation  gradually  destroys 
tlie  strength  of  the  muscles,  so   are  their    powers  most 
rapidly  exhausted  by  continued  contraction.     This  indeed 
appears  to  be  impossible  for  any  considerable  length  of 
time.     To  hold  the  arm  in  a  horizontal  position,  for  ten 
minutes,  even  without  any  weight  in  the  hand,  is  what  no 
one  can  do  without  pain.     To  stand  perfectly  still  on  both 
feet,  is  also  a  most  fatiguing  position,  because,  in  this  pos- 
ture the  muscles  of  the  limbs  are  under  continual  tension. 
Hence  it  is,  that  soldiers,   who  are  capable  of  enduring 
great  exertions  in  marching,  soon  become  impatient  and 
tired,  if  kept  beyond  a  certain  length  of  time  in  the  line, 
on  parade ;  and  hence,  also,  the  necessity  that  the  drill- 
officer,  who  would  have  his  men  appear  well  on  parade, 
should  often  employ  the  word  "  rest"  in  its  military  sense, 
it  being  impossible  for  them  to  keep  the  line  in  the   atti- 
tude of  soldiers  more  than  a  few  minutes  at  a  time. 

815.  If,  then,  men,  and  soldiers  too,  are  incapable,  from 
their  organization,  of  avoiding  the  relaxation  of  their  mus- 
cles, how  much  more  difficult  it  must  be  for  children  and 
youth,  whose  limbs  are  instinctively  in  perpetual  motion, 
to  restrain  themselves  from  this  natural  propensity.     Rest, 
to  these  young  creatures,  after  a  time,  undoubtedly  becomes 
much  more  painful  than  any  degree  of  hunger  or  thirst 
they  have  ever  felt ;  for  these  wants  it  would  be  consider- 
ed the  highest  cruelty  not  to  supply.    But  the  child,  often, 
as  every  parent  may  have  observed,  after  coming  out  of 
school,  prefers  the  exercise  of  his  muscles,  for  a  while,  to 
the  gratification  of  his  hunger. 

816.  Consequences  of  the  confined  Position  of  Females 
at   School. — "  The  Principles  of  Physiology,  applied  to 
the  Preservation  of  Health,"  by  Dr.  Combe,  of  Edinburgh, 
contains  some  capital  remarks  on  the  subject  of  muscular 
action  in  youth,  and  which  are  undoubtedly  applicable, 
though  it  is  hoped  only  in  a  limited  degree,  to  our  own 
country. 


260  MENTAL    AND   PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

817.  "Although  contraction  and  relaxation,"  says  the 
author,  "  or  in  other  words,  exercise  of  the  muscles  which 
support  the  trunk  of  the  body,  are  the  only  means  which, 
according  to  the  Creator's  laws,  are  conducive  to  muscular 
development,  and  by  which  the  bodily  strength  and  vigor 
can  be  secured.      Instead   of    promoting  such   exercise, 
however,  the  prevailing  system  of  female  education  places 
the  muscles  of  the  trunk  in  particular,  under  the  worst 
possible  circumstances,  and  renders  their  exercise  nearly 
impossible.     Left  to  its  own  weight,  the  body  would  fall 
to  the  ground,  in  obedience  to  the  ordinaiy  law  of  gravi- 
tation; in  sitting  and  standing,  therefore,   as  well   as  in 
walking,  the  position  is  preserved  only  by  active  muscular 
exertion." 

818.  "  But  if  we  confine  ourselves  to  one  attitude,  such 
as  that  of  sitting  erect  on  a  chair — or  what  is  still  worse, 
on  benches,  without  backs,  as  is  the  common  practice  in 
schools — it  is  obvious  that  we  place  the  muscles  which 
support  the  spine  and  trunk,  in  the  very  disadvantageous 
position  of  permanent,  instead  of  alternate  contraction, 
which,  we  have  seen,  is  in  reality  more  fatiguing  and  de- 
bilitating to  them  than  severe  labor." 

819.  "  Girls  thus  restrained  daily,  for  many  successive 
hours,  invariably  suffer — being  deprived  of  the  sports  and 
exercise  after  school  hours,  which  strengthen  the  muscles 
of  boys,  and  enable  them  to  withstand  the  oppression. 
The  muscles  being  enfeebled,  they  either  lean  over  insen- 
sibly to  one  side,  and  thus  contract  curvature  of  the  spine, 
or,  their  weakness    being  perceived,  they  are  forthwith 
cased  in  stiffer   and  stronger  stays — that  support    being 
sought  for  in  steel  and  whalebone,  which  Nature  intended 
they  should  obtain  from  the  bones  and  muscles  of  their 
own  bodies." 

820.  "  The  patient,  rinding  the  maintenance  of  an  erect 
carriage  (the  grand  object  for  which  all  this  suffering  is 
inflicted),    thus   rendered   more   easy   at   first,  welcomes 
the  stays,  and  like  her  teacher,  fancies  them  highly  use- 
ful.    Speedily,  however,  their  effects  show  them  to  be 
the   reverse  of  beneficial.      The   same   want   of   varied 
motion,   which   was  the  prime  cause  of   the  muscular 


EDUCATION   OF    YOUTH.  261 

weakness,  is  still  further  aggravated  by  the  tight  pres- 
sure, of  the  stays  interrupting  the  play  of  the  muscles,  and 
rendering  them  in  a  few  months  more  powerless  than 
ever. 

821.  "  In  spite,  however,  of  the  weariness  and  mischief 
which  result  from  it,  the  same   system  is  persevered  in ; " 
and,  except  during  the  short  time  allotted  to  that  nomi- 
nal exercise,  the  formal  walk,  the  body  is  left  almost  as 
motionless   as  before,  the  lower  limbs  only  being  called 
into    activity.     The   natural   consequences  of  this  treat- 
ment are  debility  of  the  body,  curvature  of  the  spine, 
impaired  digestion,  and,  from  the  diminished  tone  of  all  the 
animal   and  vital  functions,  general  ill  health : — and  yet 
while  we  thus  set  Nature   and  her  laws  at  defiance,  we 
presume  to  express  surprise  at  the  prevalence  of  female 
deformity  and  disease." 

822.  In  the  "  Cyclopedia  of  Practical  Medicine,"   the 
same  subject  occupies  the  attention  of  several  writers,  and 
sufficient  proof  is  there  adduced  that  Dr.  Combe  has  not 
been  mistaken  in  his   apprehension  with  respect  to  the 
consequences  of  the  course  of  physical  education  above 
described. 

823.  Dr.  Forbes,  one  of  the  writers  above  referred  to, 
says  that  he  "  lately  visited  a  boarding-school  in  a  large 
town,  containing  forty  girls,  and  that  he  learned  on  close 
and  accurate  inquiry,  that  there  was  not  one  of  these  girls 
who  had  been  at  the  school  two  years  (and  the  majority  had 
been  there  as  long),  that  was  not  more  or  less  CROOKED." 

824.  "  Our  patient,"  he  continues,  "  was  in  this  predica- 
ment ;   and  we  could  perceive   (what  all  may  perceive 
who   meet  that  most  melancholy  of  all   processions — a 
boarding-school  of  young  ladies  in  their  walk),  that  all  her 
companions  were  pallid,  sallow,  and  listless.  We  can  assert, 
on  the  same  authority  of  personal  observation,  and  on  an 
extensive  scale,  that  scarcely  a  single  girl  (more  especially 
of  the  middle  classes),  that  has  been  at  a  boarding-school 
for  two  or  three  years,  returns   home  with   unimpaired 
health ;  and,  for  the  truth  of  this  assertion,  we  may  appeal 
to  every  candid  father,  whose  daughters  have  been  placed 
in  this  situation." 

825.  In  th'e  same  work  it  is  stated  by  Dr.  Barlow,  that, 
it  least  in  some  boarding-schools,  it  is  the  practice  to  allow 


262  MENTAL   AND  PHYSICAL   EXERCISE. 

the  young  ladies  only  one  hour  of  exercise,  consisting  of 
a  slow  walk  arm-in-arm  on  the  high  road,  and  that  even 
this,  only  when  the  weather  is  fine, — while  their  tasks  in 
school  are  continued  nine  hours  ;  beside  which,  they  are 
occupied  three  and  a  half  hours  per  day,  in  optional  studies, 
or  in  works. 

826.  Dr.  Barlow  further  remarks,  that  the  superintend- 
ents of  these  schools  are  generally  extremely  anxious  about 
the  welfare  and  health  of  their  pupils  ;  and  that  it  is  through 
ignorance   of  the   consequences,   that   such    a   course    is 
pursued. 

827.  How  far  these  strictures   are  deserved  by  the  su- 
perintendents   of    boarding-schools   in   this   country,   the 
author  does   not  pretend  to  judge.     It  is,  however,  well 
known    and   acknowledged,  that  the  subject  of  popular 
education  in  this  country  is  better  understood  than  it  is  in 
Great  Britain,  or  perhaps  in  any  part  of  Europe  ;  and  we 
may  therefore  perhaps  justly  infer,  without  reference  to  the 
facts,  that  at  least  some  of  the  pernicious  usages  still  re- 
tained in  their  schools,  no  longer  exist  here. 

828.  It  is,  however,  believed,  that  a  reference  to  the 
facts  will  show,  that,  at  least  in  New  England,  the  boarding- 
schools,  to  a  considerable  extent,  are  in  a  measure  free 
from  deserving  censure  on  account  of  confining  their  pupils 
too  closely ;  though  we  have  no  doubt  that  less  study  and 
more  exercise,  taken  regularly,  would  be  highly  advanta- 
geous to  the  mental  progress,  and  certainly  to  the  constitu- 
tional firmness,  of  the  pupils. 

829.  Instead  of  so  many  successive  hours  being  devoted 
to  study  and  to  books,  the  employments  of  the   young 
ought  to  be  varied,  and  interrupted  by  proper  intervals  of 
cheerful  and  exhilarating  exercise ;  such  as  is  derived  from 
games  of  dexterity  which  require  the  co-operation  and  so- 
ciety of  their  companions.     This  is  infinitely  preferable  to 
the  solemn  processions  which   are  so  often  substituted  for 
recreation,  and  which   are  rather  hurtful  than  otherwise, 
inasmuch  as  they  delude  parents  and  teachers  into  the  no- 
tion that  this  is  really  exercise ;  whereas  the  slow,  measured 
step,  and  the  locked   arms,  and  the  solemn  silence,  show 
that  there  is  not  a  single  element  of  wholesome  recreation 
in  such  a  procession. 

830.  It  has  already  been  shown,  that  mental  cultivation 


EDUCATION   OF   YOUTH.  263 

• 

cannot  be  carried  on  without  a  proper  and  due  proportion 
of  corporeal  activity,  even  in  adults ;  and  it  is  well  known 
that  youth  require  much  more  action  than  their  parents,  in 
order  that  the  several  functions  of  the  animal  fabric  may 
be  properly  developed,  and  ultimately  gain  their  most  per- 
fect condition.  And  who  had  not  much  rather  see  his 
child  return  home  from  school  with  a  little  less  algebra, 
and  a  good  stock  of  health,  than  to  know  that  she  had 
outdone  her  classmates,  and  obtained  the  highest  prize, 
while  the  pallid  cheek,  and  the  crooked,  emaciated  frame, 
show  that  this  has  been  done  at  the  expense  of  her 
health  ? 

831.  Boys  may  run  through  the  streets,  play  ball,  skate, 
snow- ball,  fish,  and  hunt,  while  the  fate  of  the  poor  girls  • 
is  fixed,  and  bound  down  to  the  sedate  and  measured  walk, 
and  this  only  for  a  short  distance,   and  at  stated  times. 
And  still  the  girls  require  full  as  much  exercise  as  their 
brothers.     It  is  true,  as  will  be  seen  in  another  place,  that 
the  dress  of  females  is  far  more  pernicious  in  its  conse- 
quences than  that  of  the  males  ;  and  hence,  in  a  degree, 
undoubtedly,   we  may  account  for  the  greater  number  of 
deaths  by  consumption  in  the  former  than  among  the  latter. 
But  is  it  not  to  be  feared,  that  in  many  instances,  a  predis- 
position to  consumption  is  acquired  in  females  in  early 
youth,  in  consequence  of  the  want  of  those  wholesome 
sports  which  the  boys  enjoy  ?      And  is  it  not  the  duty  of 
parents  and  teachers  to  look  to  this  subject  especially,  and 
see  whether  there  is  not  a  prevailing  error  in  this  respect  ? 

832.  Remarks  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Dick.-— The  Rev.  Dr. 
Dick,  in  his  excellent  work  on  Mental  Illumination,  has 
some  good  remarks  on  the  subject  of  school  exercises  for 
the  body. 

833.  <f  Pupils  of  every  description.,"  says  he,  "  should 
be  daily  employed  in  bodily  exercises,  for  invigorating 
their  health  and  bodily  powers.    Every  school  should  have 
a  play-ground  for  this  purpose,  as  extensive   as  possible^ 
and  furnished  with  gymnastic  apparatus  for  exercising  the 
muscular  activities  of  the  young  of  both  sexes.     Swings, 
poles,  hoops,  see-saws,  pulleys,  balls,  and  similar  articles, 
should  be  furnished  for  enabling  them  to  engage  with  spirit 


264  MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

• 

and  vigor  in  their  amusements.  In  walking,  skipping, 
running,  leaping  in  height,  length,  or  depth,  swinging, 
lifting,  carrying,  jumping  with  a  hoop  or  pole,  they  will 
not  only  find  sources  of  enjoyment — when  these  exercises 
are  properly  regulated,  to  prevent  danger  and  contention 
— but  these  enjoyments  will  also  strengthen  and  develop 
their  corporeal  powers.  All  imitations,  however,  of  war 
and  military  manoeuvres,  should  be  generally  prohibited  ; 
as  it  is  now  more  than  time  that  a  martial  spirit  should  be 
counteracted,  and  checked  in  the  bud, — and  those  who  en- 
courage it  in  the  young,  need  not  wonder  if  they  shall,,  ere 
long,  behold  many  of  them  rising  up  to  be  curses,  instead 
of  benefactors,  to  mankind.  They  might  likewise  be  oc- 
casionally employed  in  making  excursions,  in  company 
with  their  teacher,  either  along  the  seashore,  the  banks  of 
rivers,  or  to  the  top  of  a  hill,  for  the  purpose  of  surveying 
the  works  of  nature  and  art,  and  searching  for  minerals, 
plants,  flowers,  or  insects,  to  augment  the  school  museum, 
and  to  serve  as  subjects  for  instruction. 

834.  "  If  every  school  had  a  piece  of  ground  attached 
to  it  for  a  garden,  and  for  the  cultivation  of  fruit-trees, 
potatoes,  cabbages,  and  -other  culinary  vegetables,  children 
of  both  sexes,  at  certain  hours,  might  be  set  to  dig,  to  hoe, 
to  prune,  to  plant,  to  sow,  to  arrange  the  beds  of  flowers, 
and  to  keep   every  portion  of  the  plot  in  neatness  and 
order. 

835.  "  Such  exercises  would  not  only  be  healthful  and 
exhilarating,  but  might  be  of  great  utility  to  them  in  after 
life,  when  they  come  to  have  the  sole  management  of  their 
own  domestic  affairs.     They  might  also  be  encouraged  to 
employ  some  of  their  leisure  hours  in  constructing  such 
mechanical  contrivances  and  devices  as  are  most  congenial 
to  their  taste. 

836.  "  If,  instead  of  six  or  seven  hours  confinement  in 
school,  only  Jive  hours  at  most  were  devoted  to  books,  and 
the  remaining  hours  to  such  exercises  as  abovementioned, 
their  progress  in  practical  knowledge,  so  far  from  being 
impeded,  might  be  promoted  to  a  much  greater  extent. 

837.  "  Such  exercises  might  be  turned  not  only  to  their 
ohysical  and  intellectual   advantage,  but  to  their  moral 
improvement.     When  young  people  are  engaged  in  their 


'  EDUCATION   OF   YOUTH.  265 

diversions,  or  in  excursions  along  with  their  teachers,  their 
peculiar  tastes,  tempers,  and  conduct  toward  each  other, 
are  openly  developed ;  they  act  without  restraint ;  they 
appear  in  their  true  colors ;  and  a  teacher  has  the  best 
opportunity  of  marking  the  dispositions  they  display.  He 
can,  therefore,  apply  at  the  moment  those  encouragements 
and  admonitions,  and  those  Christian  rules  and  maxims,  by 
which  their  characters  and  conduct  may  be  moulded  into 
the  image  of  Him  *  who  hath  set  us  an  example,  that  we 
should  walk  in  his  steps.' 

838.  "  The  incidents  and  the  atmospherical  phenomena 
which  may  occur  on  such  occasions,  will  also  supply  ma- 
terials for  rational  observations  and  reflections,  and  for  di- 
recting the  train  of  their  affections,  and  the  exercise  of  their 
moral  powers ;   and  no  opportunity  of  this  kind,  for  pro- 
ducing useful  impressions  upon  the  young,  should  be  lost 
by  the  pious  and  intelligent  instructer." 

839.  Every  reflecting  teacher  and  parent  who  reads  the 
above  remarks,  will  see  in  them  all  that  humanity,  discre- 
tion, and  judgment,  which  everywhere  distinguish  the  pen 
of  Dr.  Dick,  and  especially  when  he  speaks  of  the  physical 
and  moral  education  of  youth.     But  although  several  of 
the  exercises  he  has  mentioned,  are  fit  for  young  ladies, 
they  are  meant  to  apply  chiefly  to  boys,  for  whose  use 
there  seems  to  be  little  difficulty  in  the  selection.     But 
with  respect  to  the   girls,  it  is  obvious  that  a  distinction 
must  be  made,  for  although  they  perhaps  require  as  much 
action  as  the  boys,  it  ought  generally  to  be  less  athletic  in 
its  kind,  and  such  as  especially  to  give  motion  to  the  arms 
and  muscles  of  the  chest.     As  a  reason  for  selecting  exer- 
cise of  this  sort,  for  females,  we  will  only  recur  to  the  well- 
known  fact  already  mentioned,  that  they  are  more  liable 
to  the  consumption  of  the  lungs  than  the  males,  let  the 
cause  be  what  it  may.    Such  recreations,  therefore,  as  give 
motion  to  the  pectoral  muscles — as  open  and  expand  the 
lungs  and  chest,  and  give  strength  to  the  organs  of  respi- 
ration generally,  are  peculiarly  proper  for  females. 

23 


266  MENTAL   AND   PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 


CALLISTHENICS 

840.  The  regular  and  somewhat  scientific  gymnastics, 
formerly  introduced  into  schools,  under  the  name  of  callis- 
thenic  exercises,  have,  we  believe,  had  their  day,  and  gone 
into  general  disuse.     Possibly,  the  novelty  of  this  method 
was  its  chief  recommendation,  though  it  is  said  that  some 
were  injured  by  it,  either  from  the  unnatural  positions  into 
which  the  limbs  were  thrown,  or  by  the  violence  of  the 
motions. 

841.  The  great  objection  to  this  mode  of  exercisej  how- 
ever, we  conceive  arises  not  from  these  causes,  for  the 
positions,  as  well   as  the  violence  of  the  motions,  could 
easily  be  regulated  according  to  the  condition  or  strength 
of  the  pupil,  which  certainly  ought  to  be  the  case  in  every 
exercise.     The   objection    is   founded  on   other  grounds, 
and  the  reason  why  this  method  does  not  prevail,  is,  that 
it  does  not  answer  the  purposes  intended ;  nor  will  any 
other  exercise,  which  has  no  motive  connected  with   it, 
and  therefore  does  not  interest  the  feelings,  and  excite  the 
brain. 

842.  Mere  positions,  or  mere  muscular  contractions,  as 
we  have  abundantly  shown,  are  of  very  little  use,  especial- 
ly to  the   young.     During  inclement  weather,  when  the 
pupils  cannot  employ  the  more  exciting  means  of  health 
in  the  open  air,  throwing  the  hoop,  or  playing  at  battle- 
door,  may  very  properly  be  used  as  substitutes,  and  in 
which  some  take  considerable  interest.     But  throwing  the 
limbs  backward  and  forward,  or  up  and  down,  or  the  use 
of  the  dumb-bell,  or  any  any  such  sort  of  action,  without 
any  object  in  view,  other  than  that  of  employing  the  mus- 
cles, ought  never  to  be  depended  upon  as  a  means  of  pre- 
serving the  health  of  students. 


ARCHERY. 

843.  One  of  the  most  proper,  convenient,  modest, 
graceful,  and  healthful  athletic  recreations  for  females,  is 
ARCHERY.  Every  female  school  establishment  should, 
therefore,  have  a  piece  of  ground  marked  off,  together 


ARCHERY.  267 

with  target,  and  bows  and  arrows,  prepared  for  this  pleas- 
ant and  invigorating  diversion. 

844.  This  exercise  is  peculiarly  advantageous,  and  prop- 
er for  females,  on  account  of  the  reason  already  given 
why  they  ought  to  employ  every  means  for  invigorating 
the  chest  in  early  life,  and  were  these  recreations  generally 
adopted,  we  have  no  doubt,  but  many  a  slender  one,  who 
would  otherwise  occupy  an  untimely  grave,  might  long  be 
preserved  to  herself  and  society. 

845.  Nor  is  this  exercise  at  all  deficient,  when  properly 
carried  on,  in  that  excitement  which  gives  vigor  to  the 
muscles  and  buoyancy  to  the  mind.     But  for  this  purpose 
there  must  be  preparations,  and  circumstances  attending  it, 
which  it  is  necessary  to  describe. 

846.  It  is  well  known  that  the  bow  and  arrow  was 
anciently  the  most  efficient  means  of  defence  among  civi- 
lized men,  and  that  before,  and  even  after  the  invention  of 
gun-powder,  it  was  the  chief  weapon  employed  in  the  wars 
of  Europe. 

847.  In  England,  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  every 
man  in  the  kingdom  was  obliged  by  law  to  have  in  his 
house  a  good  bow  and  three  arrows.     Charles  II.  was  an 
archer  himself,  and  once  knighted  a  man  for  having  beat 
Sir  Wm.  Wood,  a  famous  bow-man,  in  a  game  of  shooting. 
Such  was  the  love  of  this  sport  in  England,  that  particu- 
lar spots  of  ground   were  appropriated   to  the   archers, 
by  the  law  of  the  land;  but  these  being  gradually  en- 
croached  upon,  by  tenements    and   gardens,  the   people 
assembled,  and    without   authority,  cleared   and   levelled 
the  grounds  without  reference  to  trees,  ditches,  or  other 
obstacles,  until  they  opened  the  space  of  the  archery- 
fields  agreeably  to  the  ancient  landmarks.     Such  impor- 
tance did  the  people  attach  to  this  sport;    and   at  that 
period,  on  account  of  their  athletic  exercises,  men  were 
much  stronger  in  all  their  limbs  than  we  are  at  the  present 
day. 

848.  This  fine  exercise  afterward  gradually  declined, 
and  for  a  long  time  was  little  practised  except  by  boys ; 
but  has  recently  been  revived,  particularly  in  England, 
where  every  year   meetings   of  archers,  of  both   sexes, 
frequently  occur.     These  meetings  are  attended  by  many 


268  MENTAL   AND   PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 

of  the  female  nobility,  and  are  said  often  to  compose 
the  most  brilliant  and  attractive  rural  feats  which  are  en- 
joyed in  that  country. 

849.  Ladies  may  shoot  at  the  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty 
yards ;  and  the  attitude  of  an  accomplished  female  archer 
— of  one  who  has  studied  and  practised  the    art   in  a 
proper  manner,  at  the  moment  of  bending  the  bow,  is 
particularly  graceful — all  the  actions  and  positions  tend  at 
once  to  produce  an  appearance  or  vigor  in  the  frame,  and 
to  impart  a  general  elegance  to  the  deportment. 

850.  The  excitement  of  feeling  which   a  competition 
among  the  fair  archers  produces,  together  with  the  mus- 
cular exertions  which  such  occasions  call  forth,  make  this 
among  one  of  the  most  healthful  and  agreeable  pastimes  in 
which  propriety  permits  young  ladies  to  indulge. 

851.  The  face  of  the  target  has  a  gilded  centre,  around 
which  are  four  circles,  of  which  the  inner  one  is  red  ; 
the  second  white ;   the  third  black ;   arid  the  outer  one 
white,  with   a  narrow   border   of  green.      The   propor- 

Fig.  124. 


tions  may  be  as  in  the  above  Fig.  124.  The  diameter  may 
be  from  one  to  two  feet,  according  to  the  distance,  and 
expertness  of  the  shooters. 

852.  The  mode  of  ascertaining  the  value  of  the  hits, 
which  is  increased  in  proportion  as  they  strike  near  the 
centre,  is  as  follows.  The  hits  in  the  centre  are  multiplied 
by  nine ;  in  the  red  by  three ;  in  the  inner  white  circle  by 


ARCHERY.  269 

two ;  by  adding  a  fourth  to  those  in  the  black,  and  count- 
ing without  alteration  those  in  the  outer  white. 

853.  Suppose,  then,  that  Miss  A.  has  1  shot  in  the  cen- 
tre ;  4  in  the  red  ;  5  in  the  white  ;  8  in  the  black  ;  and  6 
in  the  outer  white ;  then  the  value  of  the  first  is  9 ;  the 
second  12 ;  the  third  10 ;    the  fourth  10 ;    and  the  fifth 
6=47 ;  the  value  of  Miss  A.'s  shots.     Suppose  Miss  B. 
has  2  in  the  centre  ;  1  in  the  red ;  3  in  the  white  j  8  in 
the  black ;  and  6  in  the  outer  white ;  then  the  value  of  her 
shots  will  be,  in  the  first  18  ;  in  the  second  3  ;  in  the  third 
6 ;  in  the  fourth  10,  and  in  the  last  6=43  ;  the  value  of 
Miss  B.'s  shots. 

854.  Selection  of  Bows  and  Arrows. — Bows  should  be 
from  four  to  five  and  a  half  feet  in  length,  according  to 
the  height  and  strength  of  the  individuals  who  are  to  use 
them. 

855.  The  shaft  of   the  arrow  should  taper  gradually 
from  the  head,  or  pile  as  it  is  termed,  to  the  nock,  or  notch, 

Fig.  126. 


Fig.  125.  The  length  of  the  arrow  should  be  from  two 
to  three  feet,  and  made  of  light  wood,  with  a  head  of  some 
harder  material,  as  lignum  vitee,  or  horn. 

856.  In  stringing  the  bow,  which  the  lady  should  learn 
to  do  herself,  the  bend  should  not  be  greater  than  to  bring 
the  string,  in  a  bow  of  five  feet  long,  to  a  greater  distance 
than  five  or  six  inches  from  the  centre.     If  the  bow  be 
bent  to  nearly  a  half  circle,  as  is  sometimes  done,  it  de- 
stroys a  great  proportion  of  its  elasticity,  and  at  the  same 
time  prevents  giving  the  arrow  its  full  force,  by  requiring 
the  right  hand  to  be  drawn  too  far  back  in  the  act  of 
shooting. 

857.  To  pull  the  string  back  for  the  discharge  of  the 
arrow,  good  shooters  do  not  employ  the  thumb,  but  two  or 
three  fingers,  the  arrow  being  held  between  the  fore  and 
second.     These  fingers  are  protected  by  a  glove  of  three 


270          MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

fingers,  made  of  stout  leather,  so  that  these  delicate  parst 
should  not  be  exposed  to  injury. 

858.  The  bow  being  strung,  it  is  grasped,  when  about  to 
be  used,  by  the  left  hand,  at  a  little  distance  from  the  cen- 
tre ;  well-made  instruments  having  a  place  or  handle  for 
this  purpose. 

859.  The  arrow  is  then  to  be  taken  in  the  right  hand  by 
the  middle,  and  carried  under  the  Fig.  126. 
string,  to  the  left  of  the  bow,  until 

its  head  reaches  the  left  hand,  the 

forefinger  of  which  receives  it,  and 

the  right  hand  is  removed  from  the 

middle  to  the  nock ;  the  arrow  is 

next  to  be  drawn  down  the  bow, 

and  the  string  placed  in  the  nock, 

with   the  red  feather  uppermost ; 

the   forefinger  is  then  withdrawn 

from  the  arrow,  and  placed  round 

the  bow,  in  its  original  place.    The 

body  now  stands  in  the  position  of  Fig.  126,  with  the 

weapon  as  there  represented. 

860.  "  The  attitude  of  shooting,"  says  the  Ladies'  Book, 
"  is  a  matter  of  much  importance :  the  heels  should  be  a  few 
inches  apart,  the  neck  slightly  curved, 

so  as  to  bring  the  head  a  little  down-  Flg  1S7> 

ward ;  the  face,  but  not  the  front  of 
the  body,  is  to  be  turned  toward  the 
mark.     The  left  arm  must  be  held 
out  quite  straight  to  the  wrist,  which 
should  be  bent  inward ;  the  bow  is  to 
be  held  easy  in  the  hand,  and  the  ar- 
row when  drawn,  should  be  brought, 
not  toward  the  eye,  but  the  ear." 
"The   right  hand   should   begin  to 
draw  the  string,  as  the  left  raises  the 
bow  :  when  the  arrow  is  three  parts 
drawn,  the  aim  is  to  be  taken ;  in 
doing  this,  the  pile  should  appear  at  ~ 
the  right  of  the  mark ;  the  arrow  is  then  drawn  to  its 
head,  and  immediately  let  go."     The  arrow  passes  along 
the  root  of  the  thumb  and  fore-finger.    Fig.  127  represents 
a  female  archer,  at  the  instant  of  shooting. 


ARCHLRY. 


271 


861.  A  person  at  the  target  is  furnished  with  a  card, 
marked  off  as  follows,  for  the  convenience  of  inserting  the 

Names.  |  Gold.  |  Rod.   |  I.  White.  |  Black,  j  O.  White.  JYotaLl  Value.! 

47) 


A 
B 


24 
20 


43 


names  of  the  shooters  and  recording  their  hits.  This  will 
be  understood  by  a  reference  to  Fig.  124,  together  with 
the  rules  for  estimating  the  value  of  the  hits  in  the  differ- 
ent circles  already  given.  The  account  is  kept  on  the 
card,  by  making  a  pin-hole  through  the  compartments, 
corresponding  to  the  circles  on  the  target  for  each  hit. 

862.  We  have  been  thus  particular  in  describing  this 
sport,  because  we  consider  it  one  of  the  most  healthful 
and  appropriate  in  which  young  ladies  can  indulge  ;  and 
cannot,  therefore,  but  hope  that  it  will  be  introduced  into 
boarding  schools  generally,  as  a  recreation. 


272 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS    WITH    RESPECT    TO     HEALTH,   AND 
DISEASE. 

863.  Disease  may  be  regarded  in  three  points  of  view, 
viz.,  First,  in  having  no  necessary  connection  with  our 
conduct,  but  as  being  the  result  of  circumstances  entirely 
beyond  our  control,  or  knowledge,  and  inflicted  upon  us 
by  a  wise  Providence,  for  the  purpose  of  warning  us  of 
our  mortality,  and  of  bringing  us  to  think  more  soberly 
of  our  moral  condition,  and  of  the  great  end  of  our  ex- 
istence. 

Secondly,  as  the  result  of  what  we  consider  accident 
alone,  or  of  external  causes  which  we  can  appreciate, 
but  which  it  would  have  been  impossible  for  us  to 
prevent. 

Thirdly,  as  the  result  of  the  direct  infringement  of  one, 
or  more  of  the  laws  or  conditions  of  organic  life,  as  de- 
creed by  the  Creator  to  be  essential  to  the  well-being, 
health,  and  activity  of  our  systems. 

864.  As  diseases,  and  accidents  will  occur  without  our 
participation,  or  means  of  prevention,  the  First,  and  Sec- 
ond views  do  not  here  claim  our  attention,  and  we  shall 
therefore  pass  to  the  Third,  under  which  ill  health  is  sup- 
posed to  arise  from  some  infringement  of  those  organic 
laws  by  which  our  systems  are  regulated. 

865.  Considering  that  the  human  frame  is  constructed 
to  endure,  in  many  cases,  for  eighty,  ninety,  or  even  as 
hundred  years,  it  must  seem  extraordinary  to  a  reflecting 
mind,  that  in  some  situations,  one  half  of  all  who  are 
born  should  die  before  attaining  maturity,  and  yet,  it  is 
true  that  of  1000  infants  born  in  the  city  of  London,  650 
formerly  did  not  live  to  the  age  of  10  years.     It  is  hardly 
possible  for  us  to  suppose  that  such  a  rate  of  mortality 
was  designed  by  the  Creator  to  be  the  unavoidable  fate 
of  our  race,  and  this  seems  to  be  proved  by  the  fact  that 
this  proportion  of  deaths  has  been  greatly  diminished  of 
late  years  by  the  gradual  improvement  of  the  comforts  of 
living,  and  a  closer  observance  of  the  laws  of  organic 
life. 

866.  A  hundred  years  ago,  when  the  infants  of  the 
poor  in  the  city  of  London,  were  received  into  the  public 


HEALTH    AND    DISEASE.  273 

charities,  or  brought  up  in  work-hourses,  where  the  air 
was  rendered  impure  by  numbers,  and  where  little  atten- 
tion appears  to  have  been  paid,  either  to  food,  or  nursing, 
not  above  one  in  twenty  formerly  lived  to  see  the  second 
year ;  so  that  out  of  2800,  so  received,  2690  died  yearly. 
But  when  the  conditions  of  health  came,  by  experience, 
to  be  better  understood,  and  an  act  of  Parliament  ob- 
tained obliging  the  parish  officers  to  send  these  little  inno- 
cents to  be  nursed  in  the  country,  this  frightful  mortality 
was  reduced  to  450,  instead  of  2600,  out  of  2800. 

867.  Can  evidence  stronger  than  this  be  required  to 
prove  that  disease,  and  death  frequently  arise  from  causes 
which  man  is  able  to  discover  and  remove ;  and  is  it  not 
therefore  his  imperious  duty  to  investigate  and  avoid  such 
causes,  by    every   means   which  Providence  has  placed 
within  his  reach  ? 

868.  The  different  rates  of  mortality  in  crowded  cities, 
and  in  country  villages,  very  clearly  demonstrate  the  in- 
fluence of  impure  air,  and  improper,  or  damaged  food,  in 
abridging  human  life.     Even  in   the   most  civilized  life, 
and  the  best  managed  communities,  so  great  is  the  num- 
ber who  are  doomed  to  find  an  early  grave,  and  so  few 
die  of  the  decay  of  nature,  that  we  may  well  suppose 
that  we  have  not,  with  all  the  philosophy  and  humanity 
of  the  present  age,  yet  arrived  at  the  maximum  of  health, 
and  longevity ;  but  the  advance  already  made  in  the   art 
of  procuring  long  life,  gives  every  reason  to  believe,  that 
perseverance,  and  the   extension  of  knowledge  with  re- 
gard to  the  causes  of  disease,  will,  even  for  centuries  to 
come,  enable  man  to  extend  more  and  more,  the  comforts 
and  the  lives  of  the  human  family. 

869.  The  progress  of  knowledge,  and  the  increasing 
ascendency  of  reason,  have    already    delivered  us   from 
many  scourges  which  were  regarded  by  the  ancients  as 
the  unavoidable  dispensations  of  Providence.     In  the  days 
of  imperial  Rome,  that  capital,  and  her  territories,  were 
frequently  almost  depopulated  by  visitations  of  the  plague 
and  other  pestilences,  from  which  the  present  generation 
is,  by  a  stricter  observance  of  the  conditions  of  health, 
entirely  exempted. 

870.  In  London,  in  like  mariner,  the  same  contempt  for 
cleanliness,  ventilation,  and  comfort,  which  produced  such 


274  GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS 

fatal  effects  on  the  Romans,  caused  similar  results,  and 
the  plague  swept  off  its  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands, 
until  that  dreadful,  but  fortunate  disaster,  the  great  fire, 
came  in  the  place  of  knowledge,  and  by  destroying  a 
great  part  of  the  city,  and  especially  the  crowded  lanes, 
and  sources  of  impurity,  which  the  people  had  shown  so 
little  care  to  remedy,  procured  for  the  citizens,  in  conse- 
quence of  widening  the  streets,  perpetual  immunity  from 
the  most  terrific  of  pestilences. 

871.  By  this,  the  world,  as  well  as  the  people  of  that 
great  city,  were  taught  the  grand  practical  truth  that  such 
awful  visitations  are  not  the  wanton  inflictions  of  a  venge- 
ful Providence,  but  the  direct  consequence  of  the  non- 
observance  of  those  conditions  by  which  the  various  vital 
functions    are   regulated,   and    by  conforming  to  which 
alone,  health  can  surely  be  preserved. 

872.  Small  Pox. — Small  pox  is  another  scourge  which 
annually  carried  off  its  thousands,  and  from  which  modern 
science  bids  fair  to  protect  us,  although  half  a  century 
ago,  any  one  who  might  have  ventured  to  express  such 
an  expectation,  would  have  been  ridiculed  for  his   credu- 
lity.    Even  before  Jenner's  immortal  discovery  of  vac- 
cination, the  improvement  of  medical  science  consequent 
on  a  better  knowledge  of  the  structure  and  functions  of 
the  human  body,  had  greatly  mitigated  the  fatality    of 
small  pox. 

873.  Formerly  the  patients  were  shut  up,  loaded  with 
bedclothes,  in  heated  rooms,  from  which  every  particle  of 
fresh  air  was  excluded,  and  stimulants  were  administered, 
as  if   on  purpose   to  hasten  the  fate  of  the  sick.     But 
sounder  views  of  the  wants  of  the  animal  economy  at 
last  prevailed ;  and  by  the  admission  of  fresh  air,  the  re- 
moval   of    everything    heating  or  stimulating,   and    the 
administration  of  cooling  drinks  and   other  appropriate 
remedies,  thousands  were    preserved  whose  lives  would 
have  been  lost  under  the  mistaken  guidance  of  the  older 
physicians. 

874.  Fever  and  Jlgue. — As  late  as  the  middle  of  the 
last  century,  ague  was  so  prevalent  in  many  parts  of 
Britain,  where  now  it  is  rarely  seen,  that  our  ancestors 
looked  upon  an  attack  of  it  as  a  kind  of  necessary  evil, 
from  which  they  could  never  hope  to  be  delivered.     In 


WITH   RESPECT   TO   HEALTH   AND    DISEASE.  275 

this  instance   also,  farther   experience  has   shown   that 
Providence  was  not  in  fault. 

875    By  draining  the  land,  removing  manure,  buildin 
houses  in  better  situations,  and  obtaining  better  food  a 
warmer  clothing,  it  appears  that  generations  now  succeed 
each  other,  living  on  the  very  same  soil,  without  a  single 
case  of  ague  ever  occurring,  where,  a  century  ago,  every 
man,  woman,  and  child,  was  almost  sure  to  suffer  from  it 
at  one  time  or  other  of  their  lives ;    thus   again  showing 
how  much  man  may  do  for  the  preservation  of  his  health, 
and  the  improvement  of  his  condition,  when  his  conduct 
is  directed  by  knowledge  and  sound  principles. 

876.  Ansorfs  and   Cook's    Voyages. — If  we  wish  for 
a  still  more  admirable  proof  of  the  same  practical  truth, 
we  have  only  to  compare  the  condition  of  our  seamen,  in 
maritime    expeditions  undertaken    a   century  ago,    with 
their  lot  in  the  present  day — the  expedition  against  Car- 
thagena,  or  that  of  Anson,  for   instance,  with  those  of 
Cook,   Parry,  and  Ross ;   or  the  health  enjoyed  by  the 
crew  of  the  "  Valorous,"  with  that  of  the  seamen  in  the 
other  vessels  lying  in  the  same  harbor. 

877.  Prison's  Voyage. — >Anson  set  sail  from  England, 
on  the  13th  of  September,  1740,  in  the  Centurion  of  60 
guns  and  400  men,  accompanied  by  the  Gloucester,  of  50 
guns  and  300  men ;  the  Pearl,  of  40  guns  and  250  men ; 
the  Wager,  of  28  guns  and  160  men  ;  the  Tryal  sloop, 
of  8  guns  and  100  men,  and  two  victuallers,  one  of  400, 
and  the  other  of  200  tuns.     They  had  a  long  run  to  Ma- 
deira,  and    thence  to   the  coast  of  Brazil,  where   they 
arrived  on  the  18th  of  December ;  but  by  this  time,  the 
crews  were  remarkably  sickly,  so  that  many  died,  and 
great  numbers  were  confined  to  their  hammocks. 

878.  The  commodore  now  ordered  "  six  air-scuttles  to 
be  cut  in  each  ship,  to  admit  more  air  between  the  decks" 
and  took  other  methods  to  correct  the  "  noisome  stench 
on  board,"  and  destroy  the  vermin,  which  nuisances  had 
become  "  very  loathsome  ;"  and  beside  being  "  most  in- 
tolerably offensive,  they  were  doubtless,  in  some  sort,  pro- 
ductive  of  the  sickness  under  which  we  had  labored." 
Such  is  the  mild  language  used   by   the  chaplain,  Mr. 
Walter,  in  communicating  these  appalling  truths !     On 
anchoring  at  St.  Catherine's,  80  patients  were  sent  on 


276  GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS 

shore  from  the  Centurion  alone,  of  whom  28  soon  died, 
and  the  number  of  sick  increased  to  96.  Although  this 
was  nothing  compared  to  what  took  place  afterward^  it 
is  nevertheless  worthy  of  remark,  for  as  yet  they  had 
suffered  no  privations  or  unusual  hardships,  except  from 
contrary  winds.  The  causes  of  disease  lay  entirely  with- 
in themselves. 

879.  After  a  stormy  and  tedious  navigation  of  three 
months  around  Cape  Horn,  scurvy  carried  off  43  more  in 
the  month  of  April,  and  double  that  number  in  May,  1741. 
Those  who  remained  alive  now  became  more  dispirited 
and  melancholy   than    ever  ;    which   "  general  dejection 
added  to  the  virulence  of  the  disease,  and  the  mortality 
increased  to  a  frightful  degree" 

880.  On  the  9th  of  June,  when  in  sight  of  Juan  Fer- 
nandez, the  debility  of  the  people  was  so  great,  that,  200 
being  already  dead,  the  lieutenant  could  muster  only  two 
quartermasters,  and  six  foremast-men  able  for  duty  in  the 
middle  watch  ;  so  that,  had  it  not  been  for  the  assistance 
of  the  officers,  servants,  &c.,  they  would  have  been  un- 
able to  reach  "the  island  —  to  such  a  condition  was  a  crew 
of  400  men   reduced   in  the   course  of  a   few    months. 
Within   a  year,  out  of  upward  of  1200  men,  comprising 
the  crews  of  the  squadron,  who  had  sailed  from  England, 
335  only  remained. 

881.  Spanish  Squadron.  —  The    fate   of  the    Spanish 
squadron  which  sailed  nearly  at  the  same  time,  was  still 
more  horrible.     The  Esperanza,  of  50  guns,  lost  392 
out  of  450  men,  and  the  other  ships  almost  as  large  a 
proportion.     It  is  true  that  in   doubling  Cape  Horn,  they 
encountered  the  severest  weather  and  the  greatest  priva- 
tions, and  that  their  deplorable  fate  was  aggravated  by 
these  causes.     But  when  we  look  to  the  conduct  of  later 
navigators,  in  circumstances  equally  trying,  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  resist  the  gratifying  conviction  that  mortality  like 
this  forms  no  part  of  the  designs  of  a  beneficent  Provi- 
dence, and  that,  for  the  best  of  purposes,  our  safety  is 

laced,  to  a  great  extent,  within  the  limits  of  our  own 


882.  The  late  memorable  expeditions  of  Parry,  of 
Franklin,  and  more  especially,  of  Ross,  who,  with  few 
resources,  spent  upward  of  four  years  in  the  desolate 


WITH   RESPECT    TO   HEALTH   AND   DISEASE.  277 

regions  of  the  north,  with  scarcely  any  loss  of  life,  are 
examples  pregnant  with  warning  to  all  who  are  inter- 
ested in  the  future  progress  of  man. 

883.  Cook's  Second  Voyage. — It  may  be  said  that  the 
climate  and  situation  of  the  two  parties  were  dissimilar. 
In  some  respects  the  objection  is  well  founded  ;  but  Cook's 
second  voyage  round  the  world,  in  1772,  affords  a  paral- 
lel presenting  so  many  points  of  resemblance  to  that  of 
Anson,  that  no  one  can  reasonably  object  to  their  com- 
parison. 

On  this  occasion  the  vessels  selected  were  the  Resolu- 
tion, carrying  112  men,  and  the  Adventure,  with  a  crew 
of  81. 

884.  Enlightened  by  former  experience,  Cook  spared 
no  pains  to  effect  his  equipment  in  the  completest  man- 
ner, and  to  lay  in  such  stores  of  clothing   and  provisions 
as  he  knew  to  be  useful  in  preserving  the  health  of  those 
under  his  command.    Among  these  were  malt,  sour  krout, 
portable   broth,  sugar,  and   wheat.     Care  was  taken   to 
expose  the  men  to  wet  as  little  as  possible,  to  make  them 
shift  themselves  after  being  wet,  and  to  keep  their  per- 
sons, hammocks,  bedding,  and  clothes,  perfectly  clean  and 
dry. 

885.  Equal  care  was  taken  to  keep  the  ship  clean  and 
dry  between  decks ;   once  or  twice   a  week  it  was  aired 
with  fires  ;   and  a  fire  was   also  frequently  made  at  the 
bottom  of  the  well,  which  was  of  great  use  in  purifying 
the  air  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  ship.     To  the  last  pre- 
caution too  great  attention  cannot  be  paid  ;   as  the  least 
neglect  occasions  a  putrid  and  disagreeable  smell  below, 
which  nothing  but  fire  can  remove.     Fresh  water,  vege- 
tables, and  fresh  provisions,  were  also  eagerly  sought  for 
at  every  opportunity  ;  and  these  it  was   Captain  Cook's 
practice  to  oblige  his  people  to   make  use  of  by  his  own 
example  and  authority.     The  result  of  these  measures  we 
shall  now  see. 

886.  The  two  ships  sailed  on  the  13th  of  July,  1772. 
Toward  the   end  of  August,  then  advancing  toward  the 
south,   the   rain  "  poured   down,   not   in   drops,  but   in 
streams ;   and  the  wind  being  at  the  same  time  variable 
and  rough,  the  people  were  obliged  to  attend  so  con- 
stantly upon  the  deck,  that  few  of  them  escaped  being 

24, 


278  GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS 

completely  soaked ;"  but  although  rain  is  a  great  promo- 
ter of  sickness  in  warm  climates,  the  airing  by  fires  be- 
tween decks,  and  the  other  precautions  were  so  effectual, 
that,  on  arriving  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  only  one 
man  was  on  the  sick  list ;  whereas  we  have  seen  that, 
after  a  similar  voyage,  the  Centurion  arrived  on  the  coast 
of  Brazil  with  80  sick,  of  whom  28  soon  died.  As  we 
proceed,  the  contrast  becomes  still  more  striking. 

887.  On  the  10th  of  December,  they  met  with  islands 
-of  ice  ;  and  from  that  time  till  the  middle  of  March,  con- 
tinued their  search   for   land  with  unremitting  diligence, 
amid  cold,  hardships,  and  dangers,  such  as  we  can  form  a 
very  imperfect  idea  of;    and  at  last,  on  the  26th  March, 
after  being  117  days  at  sea,  during  which  they  had  sailed 
3660  leagues,  they  came  to  anchor  in  Dusky  Bay,  New 
Zealand. 

888.  "  After  so  long  a  voyage,"  says  Dr.  Kippis,  from 
whose  Life  of  Cook  these  particulars  are  taken,  "  in  a  high 
southern  latitude,  it  might  certainly  have  been  expected 
that  many  of  Captain  Cook's  people  would  be  ill  of  scurvy. 
This,  however,  was  not  the  case      So  salutary  were,  the 
effects  of  the  sweet  wort  •  and  several  articles   of  provis- 
ions, and  especially  of  the  frequent  airings  and  sweeten- 
ings of  the  ship,  that  there  was  only  one  man   on  board 
who  could  be  said  to  be  much  afflicted  with  the  disease  ; 
and  even  in  that  man  it  was  chiefly  occasioned  by  a  bad 
habit  of  body,  and  a  complication  of  other  disorders." 

889.  Advantages  of  obeying  the  Laws  of  Health. — 
Can   anything  be  conceived  more  demonstrative  of  the 
advantages  to  be  derived  from  investigating  and  obeying 
the  laws  of  health,  than  these  splendid  results,  when  con- 
trasted  with   those  on  board  of  the  Centurion  1     In  the 
Resolution,   cheerful   activity,  cleanliness,  dry  pure   air, 
adequate  clothing,  and  a  suitable  regimen,  were  found  to 
carry   every  man  unscathed   through  hardships   and  ex- 
posure, which,  in  the  Centurion,  from  neglect  of  the  same 
protective  means,  were  severe  enough  to  sweep  off  a 
large  proportion  of  her  crew. 

890.  As  if  on,  purpose  to   place  the  efficacy  of  these 
measures  beyond  a  doubt,  it  appears  that  in  the  month  of 
July,  1773,  the  Adventure  had  many  sick,  and  twenty  of 
her  best  men  incapable  of  duty  from  scurvy  and  flux, 


WITH    RESPECT   TO   HEALTH   AND   DISEASE.  279 

when  the  Resolution,  with  a  larger  crew,  had  only  three 
men  sick,  and  only  one  of  them  from  scurvy.  This  dif- 
ference in  the  state  of  health  of  the  two  ships,  was  dis- 
tinctly traced  to  the  crew  of  the  Adventure  having  eaten 
few  or  no  vegetables  when  in  Queen  Charlotte's  Sound, 
while  on  board  the  Resolution,  Cook  was  most  particular 
in  enforcing  attention  to  this  part  of  their  dietetic  regimen 

891.  In  looking  forward,  to  a  still  greater  diminution 
of  disease  in  the  human  family,  it  is  cheering  to  fix  at- 
tention to  what  has  been   already  accomplished  by   the 
hand  of  authority.     Had  the  same  individuals  who  cir- 
cumnavigated the  globe  with  Cook,  or  braved  the  north- 
ern winters  with  Ross  and  Parry,  been  left  for  the  same 
number  of  years  to  undergo  the   ordinary  vicissitudes  of 
life  at  home,  unrestrained  in  their  inclinations  and  conduct 
by  the  constantly  operating,  and  beneficent  influence  of  a 
superior  mind,  it  is  morally  certain  that  disease  and  death 
would   have   made  greater  havoc   among  them  than  ac- 
tually   occurred    amid    privations    and    sufferings    much 
greater  than   they  were  likely  to  have  encountered   at 
home.     Hence  the  obvious  and  pressing  necessity  which 
exists  of  diffusing  widely  among  society  that   species  of 
knowledge  which  has  proved  beneficial  in  the  hands  of 
those  who  are  fortunate  enough  to  possess  it.     If  human 
health  and  happiness  may  be  thus  effectually  promoted  by 
increased  attention  to  the  conditions   which  regulate  the 
vital  and  animal  functions,  nothing   can  be   more  useful 
than  to  communicate  to  every  intelligent  being  such  a 
measure  of  knowledge  as  will  enable  him  to  (Jo  that  for 
his  own  improvement  and  safety,  which  government  now 
does  for  those  whose  services  it  requires. 

892.  Diminution  of  Mortality  in  Different  Countries. 
It  appears  that  increased  attention   to  organic  laws,  and 
improvement  in  the  practical  science  of  medicine,  has  of 
late  greatly  diminished  the  rate  of  mortality   in  several 
countries,  and  that  by  the  same  means,  the  present  ratio 
will  still  be  diminished,  there  is  every  reason  to  hope,  and 
believe. 

893.  Dr.  Hawkins,  in  his  Medical  Statistics,  estimated 
that  in  1780  the  annual  mortality  in  England  and  Wales 
was  1  in  40;  in  1790  it  was  1  in  45;  in  1801  it  was  1 


280  GENERA  I-    CONSIDERATIONS 

in  47;  in  1811,  1  in  50;   and  in  1821,  it  was  no  more 
than  1  in  58. 

894.  In  large  cities,  the  diminution  of  mortality  is  still 
more  remarkable.     In  London,  80  years  ago,  the  annual 
mortality  was   1  in  20 ;  it  is  now   1  in  40.     In  France, 
according  to  recent  accounts,  the  annual  mortality  in  the 
kingdom  is  1  in  40 ;  in  Austria,  1  in  38 ;  in  Russia,  1  in 
41;  and  in  the  United  States  of  America,  1  in  40.     In 
the  city  of  Paris  it  is  1  in  32,  whereas,  in   the  same  city 
in  1781,  it  was  1  in  25. 

895.  From  all  these  statements,  it  is  clear,  that  as 
knowledge  increases  in  the  world,  the  average  life  of  man 
is  protracted. 

PRECAUTIONS    WITH    RESPECT    TO    YOUTH. 

896.  Predisposition  to  Consumption. — The   most   im- 
portant time  of  life  to  persons  who,  by  hereditary  predis- 
position, or  otherwise,  seem  especially  liable  to  diseases  of 
the  lungs,  is  from  the  age  of  14  to  20.    At  this  period  the 
system  is  under  rapid  growth,  but  wants  that  consolida- 
tion and  bodily  strength  which  will  enable  it  to  undergo 
much  fatigue,  either  of  body  or  mind.     In  most  young 
people,  the  transition  from  adolescence  to  maturity  is  so 
rapid  that  for  several  years  all  the  animal  powers  are 
tasked  to  enable  nutrition  to  keep  pace  with  the  growth, 
and  a  corresponding  debility  of  both  body  and  mind  is 
often  observed  to  co-exist,  indicating,  in  the  clearest  man- 
ner, the  necessity  of  a  temporary  remission  from  such 
studies,   and  occupations,  as  require   much  exertion,  or 
confinement,  especially  within  doors. 

897.  During  this  period,  the  development,  and  health 
of  the  physical  system,  ought  to  be  the  chief  matter  of 
concern,  after  which,  the   system  having   acquired  power 
and  solidity,  the  mind,  from  being  nearly  torpid,  will  be- 
come active,  and  fit  for  exertion. 

898.  Indeed  it  is  not  uncommon  at  this  period  for  pa- 
rents to  despond  with  respect  to  the  mental  prospects  of 
their  children,  owing  entirely  to  physical  causes;   but 
when  the  system  has  acquired  its  proper  consolidation,  it 
is  seen  that  the  mind  becomes  energetic  in  proportion, 


WITH    KESPECT    TO    HEALTH    AND    DISEASE.  281 

and  there  is  no  longer  any  doubt  with  respect  to  the 
mental  capacity  of  the  youth. 

899.  In  such  circumstances,  the  best  method  is,  relaxa- 
tion from  study,  quietness  of  mind,  exercise  in  the  open 
air,  and  residence  in  the  country,  to  which  may  be  added 
travelling',  and  change  of  scene,  with  agreeable  company. 
Such  treatment,  if  persisted  in,  will  often  protect  the  pa- 
tient from  consumption,  though  it  may  be  his  lot  to  in- 
herit it  from  his  parents.     Whereas,  if  under  the  mistaken 
opinion  that  precautionary  measures  are  a  waste  of  time, 
a  delicate,  growing  youth  is  allowed  to  continue  at  his 
studies,  or  his  desk,  till  disease  has  actually  commenced, 
the  disappointed  parents  will  often   discover,  when  too 
late,  the  grievous  error  they  have  inadvertently  fallen 
into. 

900.  It  is  at  the  approach  of  manhood,   when  both 
mind  and  body  are  in  a  state  of  transition,  that  dissipa- 
tion, whether  by  late  hours,  exposure  to  night-damps,  or 
otherwise,  propels  with  the  most  deadly  force  upon  the 
constitution,  and  many  delicate  youth  of  both  sexes  meet 
an  early  dissolution  from  this  cause,  who,  though  predis- 
posed to  consumption,  might  have  escaped,  .had  they  been 
persuaded  to  act  with  prudence  during  these  two  or  three 
critical  years. 

1  901.  There  is  no  doubt  that  many  youth  acquire 
habits  which  lead  to  their  own  destruction,  at  boarding- 
schools,  and  this  too  without  the  knowledge,  or  even  sus- 
picion of  their  instructers,  though  there  may  be  no  want 
of  vigilance  on  their  part. 

902.  Temperature  and  Clothing. — In  winter,  young 
people  often  suffer  from  being  daily  confined,  for  many 
hours  in  succession,  without  exercise,  in  rooms  not  suffi- 
ciently heated.  This  is  a  constant  subject  of  complaint, 
it  is  believed,  in  all  cold  countries,  where  schools  and 
academies  are  kept,  and  arises  from  no  other  cause  than 
strained  economy  in  the  use  of  fuel.  This  is  a  sad,  and 
no  doubt  often  a  fatal  practice,  especially  to  such  as  are 
predisposed  to  diseases  of  the  chest,  and  lungs ;  and  to 
those  who  are  not,  there  is  hardly  any  exposure  which 
tends  more  to  diminish  the  standard  of  health,  and  induce 
insidious  disease,  than  being  confined  to  a  cold  room,  for 
hours,  without  sufficient  clothing,  and  without  exercise 

24* 


282  GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS 

903.  Young  people,  in    feeble    health,  may   exercise 
themselves  in  the  open  air  for  a   considerable  time,  by 
way  of  amusement,  or  labor,  even  when  the  temperature 
is  below  zero,  not  only  with  impunity,  but  with  advan- 
tage ;  but  there  is  scarcely  any  constitution  so  hardy,  as 
not  to  suffer  by  repeated  confinement  in  a  room  so   cold 
as  to  produce  shivering. 

904.  In  general,  young  people  in  full  health,  and  hav- 
ing the  use  of  their  limbs,  seldom  complain  of  the  cold  at 
any   season,  provided   their    clothing  is  sufficient.     We 
may  therefore   infer,  whenever  the  complaint  is  made, 
either  that  the  clothing  is  not  suitable  for  the  weather,  or 
that  some  insidious  disease  is  making  its  approach,  and  if 
additional   protection  still    fails  to    produce   the   desired 
warmth,  we  may  be  sure  that  the  subject  needs  medical 
investigation. 

905.  In  children  of  scrofulous  habits,  the  evolution  of 
animal  heat  is  commonly  below  the  healthy  standard ; 
hence  their  faces  are  pale,  and  their  hands  and  feet  are 
habitually  cold.     In  such  cases,  nothing  can  tend  more 
directly  to  induce  and  develop  the  disease  in  full,  than 
confinement  in  cold  rooms,  and  an  insufficient  quantity  of 
clothing.     Such  children  should  always,  in  the  cold  sea- 
son, be  well  covered  with  flannel,  and  take  abundance  of 
invigorating  exercise  in  the  open  air,  care  always  being 
taken  to  prevent  shivering  in  any  situation.     It  is  in  vain 
that  parents  undertake  to  harden  such  young  and  tender 
ones  by  exposure ;  they  require  the  most  sedulous  care 
and  protection,  until  age,  and  gradually  increasing  health 
carries  them  beyond  the  ravages  of  the  disease. 

906.  Exercise  of  the  Lungs. — Judicious   exercise   of 
the    lungs  is   undoubtedly   one  of  the   most   efficacious 
means  which  we  can  employ  for  warding  off  disease,  and 
promoting  their  development.     In  this  respect,  the  organs 
of  respiration  closely  resemble  the   muscles,  or  organs  of 
motion ;  they  are  both  rendered  more  vigorous  and  healthy 
by  proper  action,  while  by  inactivity,  both  become  weak- 
ened, and  impaired  in  their  functions. 

907.  It  is  true  that  the  lungs,  being  composed  of  ex- 
ceedingly attenuated  vessels,  require  more  discretion  in 
their  exercise,  than  the  muscles,  especially  when  the  for- 
mer are  predisposed  to  disease,  but  when  this  is  the  case, 


WITH    RESPECT   TO    HEALTH   AND   DISEASE.  283 

t  is  mucn  more  important  that  they  should  be  properly 
exercised  than  when  no  such  predisposition  exists. 

908.  The  lungs  may  be  exercised  indirectly  by  such 
kinds  of  bodily,  or  muscular  action,  as  is  usual,  as  walk- 
ing, running,  riding,  jumping  the  rope,  &c.,  and  directly 
by  the   employment  of  the  voice  in  reading,  speaking, 
singing,  or  playing  on  any  wind  instrument. 

909.  In  general,  both  should  be  conjoined,  or  used  al- 
ternately, as  convenience  permits.     Where  the  chief  ob- 
ject is  to  improve  the  lungs,  the  kinds  of  exercise  to  be 
employed  should  be  such  as  tend  to  expand  the   chest,  as 
well  as  to  give  a  free  use  of  the  lungs ;  and  among  these 
are  rowing  a  boat,  fencing,  playing  ball,  quoits,  and  other 
gymnastic   exercised,  where  the  arms  are  brought  into 
violent  action. 

910.  Where,  either  from  hereditary  predisposition,  or 
otherwise,  the  chest  and  lungs  do  not  appear  to  have 
common  strength  and  development,   every  effort  should 
be  made  from  infancy  to  favor  their  growth  and  strength 
by  using  any  or  all  of  the  above-mentioned  exercises,  as 
occasion  offers. 

911.  Where  no  active  pulmonary  disease  exists,  action 
of  the  above  kind  may  be  carried  so  far  as  to  induce  free 
perspiration,  taking  care  always  to  prevent  taking  cold, 
by  a  change  of  dress,  or  in  cool  weather,  going  into  a 
warm  room,  when  the  exercise  is  over. 


APPENDIX. 

CONTAINING    A   DESCRIPTION   OF   THE     ATTITUDES     OF     STAND- 
ING, WALKING,  SITTING,  AND  LEANING;    TOGETHER   WITH 

REMARKS     AND     OBSERVATIONS     ON     SPINAL     DISTORTIONS, 
AND    THE    USE    OF    STAYS. 

911.  THE  attitudes  which  the  human  frame  is  capable  of 
assuming,  are  exceedingly  various,  but  physiologists  have 
reduced  them  to  two  kinds,  or  classes ;  the  active,  and 
the  passive.     The  former  includes  all  such  as  require  the 
action  of  the  muscles,  as  standing  or  walking ;  the  lat- 
ter, such  as  require  no   muscular  exertion,  as  when  the 
body  lies  prostrate. 

STANDING. 

912.  When  we  stand  on  both  feet,  considerable  mus- 
cular effort  is  required  to  preserve  the  upright  position  ; 
and  still  more  when  we  stand  on  only  one  foot.     In  either 
case,  the  centre  of  gravity,  which  is  between  the  hips, 
must  be  kept  over  the  base. 

913.  In  the  first  attitude,  the  base   of  support  is  the 
space  between  the  feet,  including  the  breadth  of  the  feet 
themselves  in  one  direction,  and  their  length  in  the  other ; 
and  hence  when  the  toes  are  turned  outward,  in  standing 
or  walking,  the  base  is  enlarged.     In  the   last,  the  base 
is  the  single  foot  only.     During  this  position  of  the  body, 
nearly  all  the  muscles  of  the  lower  extremities,  as  well 
as  those  of  the  back,  are  in  a  state  of  continual  action ; 
and  this  is  the  reason  why  we  become  sooner  fatigued 
\vhen  standing  still,  than  when  walking,  in  which  the 
muscles  are  alternately  contracted  and  relaxed. 

914.  When  we  stand  erect,  the  vertebral  column  trans- 
mits the  weight  of  the  head,  as  well  as  of  all  the  other 


286 


APPENDIX. 


parts  of  the  body  above  the  hips,  down  through  the 
lower  limbs  to  the  feet ;  and  hence  the  necessity  that 
this  column  should  have  great  strength  and  firmness,  as 
formerly  shown. 

915.  In  standing,  if  the  spine  is  bent  backward  so  as 
to  throw  the  line  of  the  centre  of  gravity  behind  the  base, 
the  position  soon  becomes  painful ;  since  the  muscles  of 
the  back  must  be  in  a  continued  state  of  unnatural  ten- 
sion, in  order  to  maintain  this  position,  and  also  because 
the  muscles  of  the  lower  limbs  are  unduly  straightened, 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  body   from  declining 
backward,  and  thus  losing  its  balance.     This  uncomfort- 
able position  is  represented  by  Fig.  128. 

916.  The  most  natural  posture  in  standing,  is  that  which 

Fig.  128.  Fig.  129. 


can  be  supported  longest  with  the  least  fatigue,  and  this 
appears  to  be  when  the  spinal  column  is  kept  in  a  posi- 
tion similar  to  that  shown  by  Fig.  63 ;  the  muscles  of 
the  back  being  kepi:  in  only  just  sufficient  action  to  main- 
tain the  spine  erect;  the  chest  and  arms,  at  the  same 
time,  being  thrown  forward,  so  as  to  bring  the  centre  of 
gravity  somewhat  forward,  rather  than  behind  the  base, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  129.  In  this  posture,  all  the  muscles 
will  be  found  to  be  in  as  complete  a  state  of  relaxation, 
as  is  consistent  with  the  erect  position  of  the  body. 

917.  If  the  pupil  will  imitate  a  few  times  the  different 
postures  here  represented,  she  will  soon  find  by  expe- 
rience, that  one  can  be  maintained  much  longer  than  the 
other 


STANDING.  287 

919.  The  Foot. — In  describing  the  parts  concerned  in 
standing  and  walking,  we  will  begin  with  the  base,  or 
foundation. 

We  will,  however,  only  give  a  slight  description  of 
the  bones  of  this  part.  The  tarsus  is  that  part  which 
reaches  from  the  heel  to  the  middle  of  the  foot,  marked  a, 
Fig.  130.  It  is  composed  of  seven  bones.  The  meta- 
tarsus, b,  consists  of  five  long  bones,  laid  close  together, 
and  reaching  from  the  tarsus  to  the  roots  of  the  toes. 
The  phalanges,  c,  or  bones  of  the  toes,  are  so  called  be- 
cause each  row  forms  a  phalanx.  Of  these  there  are 
fourteen  in  the  whole.  Thus  the  bones  of  the  foot  are 
twenty-six  in  number.  These  are  covered  with  cartila- 
ges, and  supplied  with  tendons ;  the  first  binding  them 
together  in  the  strongest  manner,  and  the  second  giving 
them  motion  in  all  directions.  There  is  indeed  no  part 
of  the  human  frame  which  is  put  together  with  so  much 
care,  and  so  strongly  guarded  against  accidents,  as  the 
foot.  It  is  obvious  that  were  this  not  the  case,  so  small 
a  part  would  not  withstand  the  violent  concussions  to 
which  it  is  subjected,  in  sustaining  the  whole  weight  of 
the  body,  in  leaping  and  other  exercises. 

920.  The  two  bones  of  the  lower  limb,  the  tibia,  or 
shin-bone,  andfbula,  which  is  placed  on  its  outside,  form 
by  their  lower  extremities,  the  inner  and  outer  ankle- 
bones.     These  are  articulated  with  the  great  bone  of  the 
foot,  called  the  astragalus;  by   which  a  hinge-joint  is 
formed,  having  also  some  lateral  motion. 

921.  Now  when  we  walk,  this  joint  allows  the  foot  to 
roll  easily  upon  the  ends  of  these  bones ;  so  that  the  toes 
may  be  directed  according  to  the  inequalities  of  the  sur- 
face over  which  we  pass.     But  when  the  foot  is  fixed  on 
the  ground,  the  muscles  instantly  act  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  give  the  joint  a  firm  support,  so  that  the  whole  body 
rests  upon  it,  while  the  other  foot  is  carried  forward. 

922.  In  walking,  the  heel  first  touches  the   ground,  at 
which  instant  the  bones  of  the  leg  and  foot  are  in  the  po- 
sition with  respect  to  each  other,  represented  by  Fig.  130. 
If  the  legs  were  situated  perpendicularly  over  the  part 
which  first  comes  to  the  ground,  we   should   come  down 
with  a  dead  blow,  or  jolt,  as  one  does  who  has  a  woo  ien 


288  APPENDIX. 

leg.     Whereas,  by  this  arrangement,  the  foot  acts  as  a 

lever ;  and  by  the  action  Fi^  130> 

of  the  muscles,  lets  the 

weight  of  the  body  come 

down    gradually    to  the 

ground. 

923.  But,  notwith- 
standing these  easy  mo- 
tions of  the  foot,  the  whole 
becomes  exceedingly  firm, 
and  fixed,  when  the  weight  of  the  body  bears  directly 
upon  it ;  so  that  the  bones  of  the  leg  will  be  fractured, 
before  those  of  the  foot  will  be  displaced,  or  will  yield  in 
the  least.  With  respect  to  the  action  of  the  muscles 
connected  with  the  foot,  which  are  concerned  in  support- 
ing the  body  in  the  upright  position,  Sir  Charles  Bell 
speaks  as  follows : 

924.  "  The  posture  of  a  soldier  under  arms,  when  his 
heels  are  close  together,  and  his  knees  straight,  is  a  con- 
dition of  painful  restraint.     Observe  then  the  change  in 
his  body  and  limbs,  when  he  is  ordered  to  l  stand  at  ease ;' 
the  gun  falls  against  his  relaxed  arms,  the  right  knee  is 
thrown  out,  and  the  tension  of  the  ankle-joint  of  the  same 
leg  is  relieved  ;  while  he  loses  an  inch  and  a  half  of  his 
height,  and  sinks  down  upon  the  left  hip.     This  com- 
mand to  l  stand  at  ease,'  has  a  higher  authority  than  the 
general  order.     It  is  a  natural  relaxation  of  the  muscles, 
which  are  consequently  relieved  from   a  painful  state  of 
exertion;    and   the   weight   of  the  body  then  bears  so 
upon  the  lower  extremities,  as  to  support  the  joints  in- 
dependently of  muscular  effort.     The  advantage  of  this 
will  be  understood,  when  we  consider  that  all  the  mus- 
cular effort  is  made   at  the   expense  of  a  living  power, 
which,  if  excessive,  will  exhaust  the  man  ;  while  the  po- 
sition of  rest   we  are   describing,  is  without  effort,  and 
therefore  gives  perfect  relief.     And  it  is  this  which  makes 
boys    and    girls,  who  are    out  of  health,   and  languid, 
lounge  too  much  in  the  position  of  relief,  whence  comes 
permanent  distortion." 

925.  The  standing  position  is  as  firm  as  possible,  when 
the  two  feet,  directed  forward  on  two   parallel  lines,  are 
separated  by  a  space  equal  to  one  of  them.     If  the  base 


WALKING.  289 

of  support  is  enlarged  in  a  lateral  direction,  by  separa- 
ting the  feet,  the  standing  becomes  more  firm  in  this  di- 
rection ;  but  is  less  so  from  behind  and  before.  When 
one  foot  is  placed  in  a  line  before  the  other,  the  back- 
ward and  forward  support  becomes  firm,  in  proportion 
as  the  base  is  extended  in  these  directions;  while  the 
right  and  left  foundation  is  diminished  to  the  breadth  of 
the  foot. 

926.  The  importance  of  the  toes  in  standing,  will  be 
seen,  when  it  is  considered  that  their  loss  will  deprive  the 
base  of  about  one  fourth  of  its  length   in  that  direction. 
In  walking,  the  loss  of  these  parts  is  a  still  greater  mis- 
fortune ;  the  elasticity  of  the  step  being  thereby  so  di- 
minished, as  to  give   the  gait  the   appearance,  rather  of 
one  who  walks  on  wooden  legs,  than  on  sound  limbs. 

927.  Standing  on  one  Foot. — With  respect  to  standing 
on  one  foot,  it  is  only  necessary  to  say,  that  the  base  of 
support  is  reduced  to  the  surface  which  the  foot   covers, 
and  therefore  that  the  muscles  of  the  whole  limb  must  be 
in  strong  action,  in  order  to  keep  the   body  from  falling 
in  such  a  position,  which  consequently  can  only  be  sup- 
ported for  a  few  minutes. 


WALKING. 

928.  In  walking,  the  position  of  the  body  should  be 
erect,  the  head  being  always  kept  over  the  centre  of  grav- 
ity. The  step  should  be  firm,  with  the  toes  turned  out, 
so  that  the  foot  at  each  step  will  make  an  angle  of  about 
thirty-three  degrees  on  each  side  of  a  right  line  projected 
forward  on  the  ground  through  the  centre  of  gravity.  If 
the  feet  form  parallel  lines  with  each  other  in  stepping, 
the  gait  is  vulgar,  and  tottering  from  right  to  left,  the 
base  not  being  sufficient  to  give  a  firm  support  to  the 
centre  of  gravity.  If  the  toes  be  turned  outward  too 
much,  although  the  lateral  sides  of  the  base  are  thereby 
extended,  yet  the  movement  is  awkward  and  unseemly, 
especially  in  ladies,  and  the  step  will  want  that  elasticity 
from  the  action  of  the  toes,  which  give  lightness  and 
grace  to  the  gait.  TKe  foot  should  be  carried  forward 
25 


290  APPENDIX. 

with  the  toes  raised  sufficiently  to  avoid  impediments, 
but  no  higher,  for  no  position  of  the  foot  in  walking,  is 
more  graceless  and  vulgar,  than  that  of  placing  the  heel, 
with  the  toes  so  elevated,  as  to  give  them  an  apparent 
dread  of  the  ground,  as  though  they  were  covered  with 
corns.  Such  a  lifting  up  of  the  toes,  together  with  their 
parrot-like  crossing  of  each  other  in  walking,  form  a  gait 
which  no  well-bred  person  will  practise,  unless  compelled 
to  do  so  by  deformity,  for  with  common  attention  it  may 
be  avoided. 

929.  Pedestrianism. — With    respect   to   the   style    of 
walking  which  gives  the  greatest  velocity,  with  the  least 
muscular  expenditure,  pedestrians  have  learned  by  expe- 
rience to  adopt  a  manner  peculiar  to  themselves.     Capt. 
Barclay,  who  performed  the  extraordinary  feat  of  walking 
a  thousand  miles  in  a  thousand  successive  hours,  inclined 
his  body  so  as  to  throw  the  centre  of  gravity  a  little  for- 
ward of  the  centre  of  the  base,  thus  making  its  weight 
rest  chiefly  on  the  front  of  the  knee-joints.     His  step  was 
short,  and  he  raised  his   feet  only  a  few  inches  from  the 
ground.     Any  person,  it  is  said,  who  will  try  this  plan, 
will  find  his  pace  quickened  thereby  ;  at  the  same  time 
his  walking  will  be  more  easy  to  himself,  and  he  will  be 
better  able  to  endure  the  fatigue  of  a  long  journey,  than 
by  taking  the  erect  posture,  which  throws  too  much  of 
the  weight  of  the  body,  it  is  said,  on  the  ankle-joints. 
Capt.  Barclay  always  used  thick-soled  shoes,  and  lamb's- 
wool  stockings.     The  former  he  found  indispensable,  and 
had  them  so  large  as  to  avoid  unnecessary  pressure.     Ev- 
ery sportsman  of  the  least  experience  understands  this, 
never  venturing  on  an  excursion,  however  dry  the  walk- 
ing may  be,  with  thin-soled  boots. 

SITTING. 

930.  The  postures  which  we  take  in  sitting,  are  ex- 
ceedingly various,  and,  on  some  accounts,  of  the  highest 
importance,  especially  to  youth.     Thus  we  may  sit  on  the 
ground  with  the  limbs  extended  forward ;  or  upon  a  low 
or  high  seat,  with  or  without  a  back,  and  with  the  feet 
touching,  or  not  touching  the  floor,  &c. 


SITTING.  291 

931.  The  sitting  posture,  even  without  the  support  of 
the  back,  can  be  maintained  much  longer  than  that  of 
standing,  because  the  centre  of  gravity  is  thrown  nearer 
the  base ;  and  because  the  weight  is  diminished,  and  con- 
sequently the   muscular    power  required  to  support  the 
erect  posture,  is  lessened.     But  this  position,  without  the 
support  of  the  back,  after  a  time  becomes  too  painful  to 
be  endured  with  patience. 

932.  The  sad  consequences  of  long  confinement  in  the 
sitting  posture,  without  any  support  for  the  back,  have 
already  been   described  at  some    length    under  another 
head,  but  the  more  we  have  thought  upon  and  examined 
this  subject,  the  more  important  it  appears,  and  we  can- 
not therefore,  in  duty  to  the  youth  of  our  country,  dismiss 
it  without  some  further  considerations  and  remarks. 

933.  Causes  of  Spinal   Curvatures. — It  is  proposed 
here  to  trace  the  effects  of  the  causes  to  which  we  have 
already  referred  with  respect  to  curvatures  of  the  spine, 
and  to  show  why  certain  positions  will  make  this  defor- 
mity permanent. 

934.  The  spine  itself,  detached  from  all  other  parts,  is 
figured  and  described  at  p.  80,  Fig.  63,  where  the  light- 
colored  transverse  lines  between  each  two  vertebra  show 
the  cartilages  of  the  spine.     These  cartilages  are  in  the 
subject,  about  the  fourth  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  are 
compressible    and    elastic   like    pieces    of    India-rubber. 
Were  it  not  so  the  spine  would  be  rigid,  and  unyielding 
as  though  it  was  formed  of  one  continued  piece  of  bone. 
Its   motions,  therefore,  are  in   consequence  of  the  elas- 
ticity of  these  cartilages,  so  that  when  the  spine  is  bent, 
one  of  their  sides,  or  edges,  is  compressed  more  than 
the  other. 

935.  In  the  night,  when  we  take  the  recumbent  pos- 
ture, and  there  is  no  pressure  on  the  spinal  column,  these 
elastic  plates  swell  and  become  thickened,  but  their  thick- 
ness is  again  reduced  by  the  weight  of  the  body  during 
the  day,  and  especially  in  laborers  who  carry  weights 
on  their  heads.     The  diurnal  difference  in  the  thickness 
of  each  cartilage,  from  these  causes,  it  is  true,  is  very 
slight,  but  their  number  is  such  as  to  make  an  apprecia- 


292  APPENDIX. 

ble  difference  in  the  length  of  the  column  at  different 
times.  In  young  persons  the  elasticity  is  much  greater 
than  in  the  aged,  these  parts  gradually  hardening  with 
the  years  a  person  lives,  until  the  spine  finally  loses  a 
great  proportion  of  its  flexibility,  and  in  these  circum- 
stances, there  is  very  little  diurnal  difference  in  the  length 
of  the  column.  But  in  youthful  persons  the  difference  in 
the  length,  especially  if  they  are  tall,  between  morning 
and  evening,  may  be  from  half  to  a  quarter  of  an  inch, 
and  may  be  found  by  the  common  mode  of  measuring. 
Thus  do  we  grow  taller  during  the  night,  and  shorter 
during  the  day. 

936.  Now  these  cartilages,  being  thus  compressible 
and  elastic,  in  young  persons,  but  gradually  hardening 
with  age,  it  is  plain  that  if  one  edge  or  side,  in  such  a 
one  be  pressed  more  than  the  other,  and  this  pressure  be 
continued  for  any  considerable  length  of  time,  they  will 
not  grow  of  a  uniform  thickness,  the  part  thus  pressed 
becoming  thinner,  and  the  opposite  part  thicker  than  nat- 
ural.    Without   reference  to    growth,    the    same    effect 
would  be  produced  by  the   pressure   of,  and  the  gradual 
hardening  of  these  parts.     Therefore,  if  the  spinal  col- 
umn be  bent  into  any  unnatural  shape,  and  the  same  pos- 
ture be  continued  day  after  day,  and  month  after  month, 
as  is  too  often  the  case  with  young  ladies  at  school,  the 
cartilaginous    plates  will    finally  become  wedge-shaped, 
having  a  thick  and  a  thin  edge,  and  as  they  harden  with 
age,  they  will  continue  to  operate  as  wedges  in  retain- 
ing the  spine  in  that  crooked  state  by  which  they  were 
forced  into  this  form ;  and  thus  the  person  will  probably 
become  deformed  for  the  remainder  of  her  life,  in  spite 
of  all  the  frames,  pulleys,  and  weights,  and  other  Pro- 
crustean apparatus,  which  may  be  applied  to  remedy  the 
evil. 

937.  This  effect  would  be  produced  in  such  persons  as 
had  not  arrived  at  the  age  when  the  cartilages  become 
hard.     But  in  those  who  are  quite  young,  as  from  in- 
fancy to  twelve  or  fourteen  years,  even  the  bones  of  the 
spinal  column  being  still  comparatively  soft,  would  con- 
form more  or  less  to  the  curvature  given  it,  thus  making 
a  deformity  from  which  there  is  not  the  slightest  hope  of 


SITTING.  293 

,  since  the  great  beam  of  the  whole  fabric  has  thus 
become  permanently  misshapen. 

938.  Sitting  Postures  described. — It  might  perhaps  be 
considered   unnecessary  to  give  any  instructions  on  the 
most  comfortable  manner  of  sitting,  it  being  a  natural 
supposition  that  every  one  would  consult  their  own  ex- 
perience in  this  respect.     And  yet,  it  may  be  the  case, 
that  a  few  observations  and  experiments  on  this  subject, 
will  be  the  means  of  diminishing  the  pain  of  those  who 
are  for  any  considerable  time  confined  to  this  posit  on, 
and  thus  avoid  some  of  the  evils  which  might  otherwise 
arise  from  it. 

939.  The  sitting  posture,  it  will  be  found,  soon  be- 
comes painful,  and  is  maintained  with  difficulty,  when  the 
inferior  portion  of  the  spinal  column  is  bent  inward,  and 
the  arms  are  thrown  back,  with  an  erect  position  of  the 
neck  and  head.     Even  when  the  spine  is  supported  by  a 
back,  as  in  a  chair,  this  posture  becomes  uneasy,  because 
the  dorsal  muscles,  and  those  of  respiration  also,  are  kept 
in  an  unnecessary  state  of  action.     This  position  will  be 
understood  by  Fig.  131. 

Fig.   131.  Fig.  132. 


940.  The  most  comfortable  posture  in  sitting,  is  that 
which  at  once  relaxes  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  those 
of  respiration,  the  inferior  portion  of  the  spine  being  gently 
curved,  but  not  made  crooked ;  while  the  upper  part  is 
nearly  straight,  with  the  neck  a  little  inclined,  so  as  to 
25* 


294  APPENDIX. 

relax  the  muscles  supporting  the  head.     This  position  is 
represented  by  Fig.  132. 

941.  A   little   experience,   with  these  suggestions  m 
view,  will  teach  the  pupil,  it  is  hoped,  to  preserve  a 
healthful  and  becoming  position  at  school,  without  assu- 
ming the  leaning  posture,  the  consequences  of  which  are 
so  pernicious. 

LEANING    POSTURE. 

942.  One  posture  which  school-girls  are  exceedingly 
apt  to  take,  is  that  of  leaning  forward,  and  placing  the 
elbow  on  the  desk  for  support ;  and  this  they  often  do, 
even  when  their  seats  are  provided  with  backs.     This 
posture,  if  continued  so  as  to  form  a  habit,  will  often 
show  its  effects  on  all  occasions,  the  young  lady  having 
such  a  disposition  to  lean,  as  to  indulge  it  when  any  sup- 
port happens  to  be  near  where  she  sits,  let  the  place  or 
company  be  what  it  may.     Such  a  one  will  lean,  with 
the  hand  supporting  the  head,  when  at  home,  on  a  table, 
or  window-stool,  or  any  other  convenient  lolling-place, 
for  hours  together. 

943.  Where  the  spine  is  weak,  in  a  growing  girl,  and 
there  is  predisposition  to  curvature,  there  is  no  posture 
that  she  can  take,  which  is  so  unfortunate,  and  will  pro- 
duce such  a  complication  of  deformities  as  this ;  for  if  it 
is  continued  in  one  direction,  which  is  commonly  the  case, 
the  consequences  will  be  a  curvature  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  spine,  together  with  one  high,  and  one  low  hip  ;  one 
high  and  one  low  shoulder  ;  and  a  crooked  neck. 

944.  The  general  deformity  thus  induced,  is  however 
often  most  apparent  in  the  shoulder-blades,  one  of  which 
is  sometimes  thrown  so  far  out  of  place  as  to  give  it  the 
appearance  of  absolute  dislocation,  and  which  indeed,  is 
the  case,  when  compared  with  its  mate.     Fig.  133. 

945.  The  other  deformities  which  we  have  mentioned 
as  arising  from  the  same  cause,  may  in  some  degree  be 
concealed  or  qualified  by  means  of  stays,  extra  padding, 
coussinets,  and  other  efforts  of  the  milliner's  skill,  with 
which  we  profess  no  acquaintance.     But  the  dislocated 
shoulder-blades,  especially  when  they  are  uncovered,  seem 
to  defy  all  the  arts  of  the  most  profound  dress-maker,  for 


LEANING    POSTURE.  295 

neither  stays,  nor  buckram,  nor  foundation-muslu:    nor 
padding,  can  hide,  but  seem  rather  to  magnify  this  de- 
Fig.  133. 


formity ;  at  least  humanity  would  hope  so,  when  the  eye 
beholds  how  great  it  still  remains,  under  the  apparent 
use  of  all  these  remedies. 

946.  Far  be  it  from  us  to  speak  with  unkindness  or 
levity  on  a  subject  which  but  too  often  calls  for  commis- 
eration and  gravity.     But  when  we  see  those  who  might, 
peradventure,  have  passed  as  specimens  of  symmetrical 
form  among  the  fairest,  and  most  charming  of  the  Crea- 
tor's works,  unveiling  deformities  (no  matter  what  might 
have  been  their  origin),  merely  for  the  sake  of  rivalry  in 
the  extent  of  the  fashion,  we  cannot  but  lament  in  such, 
the  want  of  common  discretion,  common  prudence,  or 
common  modesty — for  did  these  unfortunates  but  know 
how  such  revelations  sometimes  affect  the  minds,  and  per- 
haps even  the  hearts  of  those  whose  kindness  and  good 
esteem  they  cannot  but  value,  they  certainly  would  have 
sacrificed  less  to  fashion,  and  more  to  decency  and  dis- 
cretion. 

947.  It  is  not  pretended  that  curved  spines,  and  de- 
ibrmed  shoulders,  are  caused  only  by  the  leaning  posture 


296  APPENDIX. 

above  described,  or  that  every  one  who  even  habitually 
takes  that  posture  will  eventually  become  crooked.  But 
in  slender,  delicately-formed  females,  from  the  age  of 
twelve  to  fourteen,  who  are  confined  eight  or  ten  hours 
per  day  in  the  school-room,  with  no  other  exercise 
than  a  walk  along  the  street  with  their  teachers,  such  a 
posture  habitually  indulged  in,  will  most  surely  produce 
deformities  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  The  Hindoo 
devotees  who  hold  their  arms  above  their  heads  as  a  pen- 
ance, are  often  compelled  to  carry  them  so  during  the 
remainder  of  their  lives,  the  parts  conforming  to  this 
position. 

948.  A  highly  observant   and  accomplished  teacher, 
who  has  spent  more  than  twenty  years  in  the  instruction 
of  females,  informs  the   author  that  he  has  long  been 
aware  of  the  distorting  consequences  of  this  posture,  and 
that  he  could  remember  numerous  instances  of  crooked 
spines  and  dislocated  shoulder-blades  from  this  cause  : — 
and   that  although  these  very  pupils   were  nearly  every 
day  warned  of  the  consequences  of  such   a  habit,  yet, 
not  seeing,  or  feeling  any  ill  effects  from  it  themselves, 
they   would   carelessly   indulge  in  it,  until  the  posture 
became  so  natural,  as  to  set  all  the  common  means  of 
prevention    at   naught,  and  thus   distortion  followed  of 
course. 

949.  Now  if  the  young  lady  will  give  no  attention  to 
the  mandates  or  remonstrances  of  her  instructer,  or  pa- 
rent, there  is  little  hope  of  preventing  her  indulgence  in 
this,  or  any  other  pernicious  habit,  and  such,  therefore, 
must  be  left  to  the  reward  of  their  own  doings.     But  in 
most  instances,  it  cannot  but  be  hoped  and  believed,  that 
those  who    are   aware  of  the  sad  consequences  of   this 
habit,  both  in  respect  to  personal  form  and  health,  whether 
they  become  so  by  reading  these  observations,  or  other- 
wise, will  take  warning  in  due  time,  and  thus  escape 
that  deformity  which  is  now  but  too  common  among  our 
best  educated  females. 

DRESS,    ANOTHER    SOURCE    OF    DEFORMITY. 

950.  There  is,  or  at  least  has  been,,  another  cause  of 
distorted  shoulders  beside  that  above  described,  and  the 


DRESS  ANOTHER  SOURCE  OF  DEFORMITY.      297 

efforts  of  which,  are  in  a  great  number  of  instances  ap- 
parent, and  will  remain  so  during  the  present  generation 
This  is  the  recent  fashion  of  dressing  so  wide  across  the 
neck  as  to  leave  one,  or  perhaps  both  tlie  acromion  pro- 
cesses, or  shoulder  tips,  in  a  state  of  entire  nudity. 

951.  The  young  lady,  it  is  true,  had  the  power,  by 
muscular  action,  of  hiding  a  part  of  one  shoulder  at  a 
time,  but  the  dress,  if  in  good  fashion,  could  never  be  made 
to  cover  both  of  these  processes,  except  alternately,  though 
it  was  quite  easy  to  leave  both  uncovered.     The  conse- 
quence of  this  fashion  was,  that,  judging  from  the  per- 
petual motion  of  these  parts,  the  wearer  constantly  felt 
as  though  her  dress  was  in  danger  of  .slipping  down,  and 
which  she  made   as  constant   efforts  to   prevent,  or    to 
ascertain  by  feeling  with  the  shoulder  whether  this  was 
the  case,  or  not,  until  these  motions  became  habitual,  and 
therefore  insensible.     As  the  dress  was  designed  to  cover 
only  one  shoulder  at  the  same  time,  this  partiality  (for 
which  shoulder   it  was   intended,  we   know   not)    was 
always  extended  to  the  same  one,  because  habit  made  it 
most    natural    and  comfortable ;  consequently   the  pres- 
sure on  the  two  sides  became  unequal,  and  the  wearer, 
to  counteract  this,  or  from  the  unnatural  or  uneasy  feeling 
consequent  upon  confining  one  side,  while  its  antagonist 
remained  free,  constantly   and  habitually    elevated    one 
shoulder  while  the  other  remained  stationary,  until  the 
former  became  permanently  higher  than  the  latter. 

952.  Although  this  (without  using  any  other  epithet) 
pernicious  fashion,  we  believe,  is  chiefly  done  away,  at 
least  among  the  fashionables,  its  consequences  still  remain, 
as  many  a  monument  of  its  existence  can  testify;  and 
therefore  we  hope  it  will  not  be  considered  impertinent, 
or  improper  to  record  its  history  and  consequences,  that 
mothers  may  be  aware  of  both,  when  its  turn,  in  the 
never-ending  circle  of  costumal  changes,  shall  again  come 
round. 

953.  Fashionable  Deformity. — The  vast  number  of  in- 
stances, in  which  the  causes  already  mentioned,  or  those 
which  we  shall  hereafter  notice,  have  occasioned  female 
deformity,  most  of  which  might  have  been  prevented,  is 


298  APPENDIX. 

a  sunject  of  very  serious  consideration,  for  beside  the 
personal  defects  thus  induced,  these  causes,  or  their  con- 
sequences often  produce  derangement  in  the  functions  of 
the  viscera,  which  in  their  turn,  superinduce  either  con- 
sumptions, or  other  lingering  diseases,  which  it  is  exceed- 
ingly difficult,  or  impossible  to  remedy,  and  which  there- 
fore end  in  death. 

954.  In  cities,  personal  deformity  among  the  higher 
classes  has  become  so  common,  that  it  seems  to  form  a 
characteristic  of  the  age  in  which  we  live.  A  few  years 
since,  and  perhaps  even  at  the  present  time,  such  was 
the  prevalence  of  curved  spines  among  those  females 
who  gave  tone  to  the  fashions,  that  it  actually  became 
the  ton  to  be  crooked,  and  many  fashionables,  who  had 
escaped  any  misfortune  in  this  respect,  contrived  to  give 
the  upper  part  of  their  spinal  columns  a  gentle  curve,  so 
as  to  imitate  the  fashionable  stoop  of  these  female  ex- 
quisites. And  in  many  instances  where  there  was  not 
the  least  intention  of  becoming  permanently  deformed, 
but  only  to  be  in  the  fashion  for  the  season,  this  genteel 
stoop  became  a  habit,  and  nature  not  liking  such  imposi- 
tions, has  taken  these  poor  devotees  at  their  word,  and 
having  formed  the  cartilages  of  their  back  bones  into 
wedges,  has  for  ever  prevented  their  regaining  that  noble 
position  which  it  was  intended  that  man  alone,  among  all 
created  beings,  should  assume.  These  are  therefore 
doomed  to  continue  in  one,  and  the  same  fashion,  for  the 
remainder  of  their  lives. 


EFFECTS  OF  PRESSURE  ON  THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  BACK. 

955.  It  is  well  known  to  physiologists,  that  if  pressure 
be  made,  and  continued  on  any  part  of  the  system,  the 
part  so  pressed  will  be  gradually  diminished  in  conse- 
quence. Thus  if  one  limb  be  tightly  bandaged,  for  a 
length  of  time,  it  will  become  smaller  than  the  other. 

955.  To  understand  the  reason  of  this,  it  is  necessary 
to  state,  that  every  part  of  the  system  is  furnished  with 
two  sets,  or  kinds  of  vessels,  called  the  capillaries,  one 
set  being  designed  to  secrete,  or  produce ;  and  the  other 
to  absorb,  or  remove ;  and  that  in  the  living  animal,  both 


EFFECTS  OF  PRESSURE  OF  THE  MUSCLES.      299 

Kinds  are  constantly  performing  their  opposite  functions. 
The  flesh  and  all  the  other  parts  of  the  body  are  formed 
by  the  secretory  system,  which  consists  of  the  fine 
extremities  of  the  arteries.  We  have  already  explained 
the  manner  in  which  the  food  is  converted  into  chyle  by 
the  process  of  digestion,  and  how  this  is  conveyed  into 
the  circulation,  to  be  converted  into  bk>od.  Now  it  is 
from  the  blood  thus  formed,  that  the  secreting  vessels 
produce  all  the  different  kinds  of  substance  of  which  the 
several  parts  of  the  animal  system  are  composed,  one 
division  forming  flesh,  another  cartilage,  and  another 
bone,  &c.  All  the  fluids  are  also  formed  by  appropri- 
ate organs  belonging  to  the  same  system.  Thus  one 
set  produce  tears,  another  saliva,  and  another  bile,  and 
so  on. 

957.  On  the  contrary,  the  absorbent  system  .takes  up, 
and  conveys  from  one  part  to  another,  the  various  fluids 
which  are  either  employed  in  the  process  of  secretion, 
or   which   being    secreted  in   some   cavity,   or    on   some 
internal  surface,  and  having  performed  its  office,  is  to  be 
conveyed  out   of  the  body.     Thus   the  absorbents  suck 
up  the  chyle  by  millions  of  mouths,  and  carry  it  to  the 
thoracic  duct,  through  which  it  is  delivered  into  the  cir- 
culation.    They  also  absorb  the  superabundant  moisture 
which  is  secreted  in  every  interior  part  of  the  body,  and 
consequently,  did   they  cease   to    act,  this  watery    fluid 
would  accumulate,  and  a  universal  dropsy  would  ensue. 
This  disease,  as  it  occurs,  is  owing  to  the  deficient  action 
of  the  absorbents. 

958.  It  is  the  office,  therefore,  of  the  secreting  system, 
to  produce  and  deposite  the  matter  composing  all  the  dif- 
ferent organs,  and  fluids  of  the  body  ;  while  the  absorb- 
ents in  their  turn,  take  up  and  carry  away,  by  slow  and 
insensible  degrees,  the  matter  thus  deposited. 

959.  Such  being  the   appropriate  functions  of  these 
two  great   systems  of  vessels,  which   are  distributed  to 
every  part  of  the  animal  frame,  it  is  plain  that  the  iden- 
tical particles  of  which  we  are  composed,  are  perpetually 
changing,  and  that  in  this  respect  we  are  not  the  same  in- 
dividuals now  that  we  were  formerly,  nor  will  our  bodies 
at  a  future  time,  contain  a  particle  of  the  identical  matter 
which  they  do  at  this  moment. 


300  APPENDIX. 

960.  In  childhood  and  youth,  when  the  frame  is  grow- 
ing, the  secretion  is  greater   than    the  absorption;- — in 
adults,  and  the  middle  aged,  the  effects  of  the  two  systems 
are  just  equal,  there  being  the  same  quantity  of  matter 
absorbed  that  there  is  secreted ;  but  in  old  age  the  absorp- 
tion is  greater  than  the  secretion,  and  hence  the  weight 
and  dimensions  of  the  body  are  diminished,  and  the  skin, 
instead  of  preserving  its  tension,  as  formerly,  becomes 
wrinkled  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  a  part  of  the  bulk 
which  it  covers. 

961.  Thus  during  one  portion  of  our  lives,  we  increase 
in  size  and  vigor,  until  having  arrived  at  maturity,  we  re- 
main for   a   time   stationary   in   both;    and  then,   lastly, 
having  passed  through  these  two  stages,  we  begin  im- 
perceptibly   in  both,   to    diminish,  the  animal    functions 
gradually  becoming  more  and  more  feeble,  until  one  after 
another  they  cease  to  act  entirely,  when  life  gives   place 
to  death.  -These  are  the  immutable  laws  which  govern 
all  created  beings,  and  which,  therefore,  no-human  means 
can  resist.     All  flesh  must  return  to  dust. 


APPLICATION    OF    THESE    PRINCIPLES. 

962.  In  applying  these  principles  to  the  use  of  stays,  it  is 
almost  unnecessary  to  say,  that  during  the  growth  of  the 
system,  pressure,  on  any  of  its  parts,  though  it  may  be 
inconsiderable  in  force,  yet  if  long  continued,  will  pre- 
vent their  increase ;  and  this  not  only  for  want  of  room 
to  expand,  but  also  by  interfering  with  the  'functions  of 
the  secreting  system  in  that  part.     A  lamentable  illustra- 
tion of  the  practical  use  of  this  principle,  is  seen  in  the 
feet  of  the  Chinese  ladies;   which  being  confined  in  iron 
shoes  from  infancy  to  the  age  of  sixteen  or  eighteen,  they 
remain  infant's  feet  ever  afterward,  though  terminating 
the  extremities  of  the  aged. 

963.  But,  beside    this  obvious  effect  of  confinement 
during  the  growth  of  the  system,  it  is  well  known  that  in 
the  adult,  as  well   as  in  the  young,  pressure  will  also 
diminish  any  part  on  which  it  is  made,  as  already  stated 
at  the  commencement  of  these  observations.     Not  only 
the  soft,  or  fleshy  portions  of  the  system  may  be  thus  ab- 


APPLICATION   OF    THESE    PRINCIPLES.  301 

sorbed  and  removed,  but  even  the  bones  do  not  resist  the 
power  of  these  minute  vessels,  portions  of  their  solid 
parts  being  sometimes  carried  away  by  their  action. 
Thus  the  enlargement  of  the  aorta,  or  great  artery 
(which  passes  down  the  spine),  by  a  disease  called  aneu- 
rism, sometimes  pressing  against  the  interior  sides  of  the 
ribs,  cause  the  entire  destruction  and  removal  of  the 
parts  thus  pressed.  We  have  seen  an  instance  where 
several  inches  of  three  or  four  of  the  lower  ribs  next  to 
the  spine,  on  the  left  side  were  entirely  removed  from 
this  cause ;  leaving  a  soft  chasm,  where  the  pulsation  of 
the  aneurism  was  frightfully  apparent,  both  to  the  sight 
and  touch.  In  the  anatomical  collection  of  Sir  Charles 
Bell,  there  is  preserved  a  specimen,  showing  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  lateral  parts  of  four  spinal  vertebrae,  from  the 
same  cause. 

964.  Indolent  tumors,  caused  by  diseased  action  of  the 
part  are  often  reduced  and  sometimes  cured  by  pressure 
on  the  part,  which  in  these  cases  is  employed  as  a  cura- 
tive means.     But  it  is  unnecessary  to  quote  more  practi- 
cal examples  of  the  fact,  that  pressure  will  both  prevent 
the  growth   and  diminish  the  bulk  of  any  part  of  the 
living  system  on  which  it  is  made.     This   fact  is  indeed 
so  common,  that  inveterate  snuffers,  who  always  carry 
a  pinch  between   the  thumb  and  finger,  often  acquire  a 
little  cavity  in   the  ball  of  the  former,  where  they  keep 
this  baneful  luxury. 

965.  The  pressure  of  stays  around  the  waist,  it  is  quite 
clear  from  the   foregoing  principles,  must  in  youth,  and 
while  the  system  is  growing  prevent  the  full  development 
of  the  muscles  of  the  back,  by  presenting  an  impediment 
to  their  increase  of  bulk;  arid  if  not  assumed  until  the 
system  has  nearly  or  quite  attained  its  full  size,  as  at  the 
age  of  sixteen  or  nineteen,  still  the  consequences  may  be 
equally  pernicious,  since  the  form,  in  this  case,  will  prob- 
ably be  supposed   to  require  a  degree  of  tension  in  the 
lacing  cords,  somewhat   proportionate  to   the   time  they 
have  been  delayed.     The  effect  will   therefore  be  to  in- 
crease the   absorption,  and  diminish  the  secretion  of  the 
parts  pressed  upon,  and  thus  to  reduce  the  bulk,  and  con- 
sequently the  strength  and  vigor  of  the  muscles. 

966.  Now  the  spinal  column  is  chiefly  supported  in  the 

26 


302  APPENDIX. 

erect  position  by  the  strong  muscles  of  the  back,  called 
the  dorsal  muscles ;  and  if  these  by  any  means,  are  di- 
minished in  bulk  or  vigor,  the  spine  will  inevitably  be- 
come distorted ;  and  as  we  have  shown  that  tight  lacing 
produces  the  first  effect,  so  it  is  equally  certain  that  the 
last  will  follow.  Thus  the  very  means  which  a  great 
proportion  of  the  ladies  of  the  present  day,  take  to  give 
themselves  little  waists,  and  consequently,  as  they  con- 
ceive, inviting  forms,  become  a  deception,  because' it  is  a 
wicked  interference  with  the  laws  of  nature ;  and  instead 
of  producing  the  desired  effect,  in  many  instances  at  least, 
actually  transforms  them  into  crooked  disgusting  objects ; 
and  in  the  sequel  we  shall  see  other  consequences  equally 
unfortunate  from  the  same  cause. 

967.  A  mother  who  begins  to  corset  her  child  at  the 
age  of  ten  or  twelve  years,  intending  to  present  to  the 
world  a  few  years  hence,  the  "  works  or  her  own  hands," 
modified    and   moulded   according  to  her  skill   and  taste, 
often  finds  that  at  the  age  of  fourteen  or  sixteen,  she  be- 
gins to  <:  eat  chalk,"  look  pale   and   grow  crooked.     To 
remedy  the  first,  she  detains  her  at  home,  lest  she  should 
expose  herself  by  going  into  the  air,  especially  if  the  season 
is  cool  j  but  finding  that  under  this  treatment,  she  becomes 
listless  and  paler  still,  she  consults  the  family  physician, 
who   very  judiciously   prescribes   iron,  and   other   tonics, 
according  to  art. 

968.  The  crook  of  the  spine,  the  mother  undertakes  to 
manage  by  her  own  skill,  not  letting  the  doctor  know  that 
anything  is  wrong  in  that  respect ;   but  only  that  the  girl 
is  growing  tall  so  fast,  that  she  has   hardly  strength   to 
keep  herself  straight — so  that  the  most  important  part  of 
the  case  is  kept  out  of  sight  and  not  prescribed  for. 

969.  The  kind  parent  begins  by  procuring  a  more  sub- 
stantial support  for  the  back  of  her  daughter,  in  the  form 
of  new  stays,  and  which  are  made  to  order,  with  direc- 
tions to  insert  an  extra  quantity  of  whalebone  and  steel ; 
and  perhaps  this  instrument  of  torture  is  padded  at  certain 
points  so  as  to  press  with  special  force  on  that  part  of 
the  spine  which  is  most  distorted,  with  the  good  intention 
of  forcing   it  to   its  proper  place.     The   means  of  cure 
being  thus  provided,  they  are  put  in  their  proper  place, 
and  the  cords  drawn  with  a  force,  in  some  degree  pro- 


APPLICATION    OF    THESE    PRINCIPLES.  303 

portionate  to  the  affection  of  the  mother,  and  the  amount 
of  the  deformity  which  it  is  intended  thus  to  obviate. 
But  contrary  to  the  anxious  expectations  of  the  family, 
the  evil  not  only  continues,  but  increases ;  and  paleness, 
emaciation,  loss  of  appetite,  and  general  debility  super- 
vene, notwithstanding  the  stays  are  tightened,  and  the 
tonics  are  repeated,  with  a  liberal  hand.  But  it  is  need- 
less to  pursue  the  details  of  such  a  picture.  It  would  in 
many  instances  lead  us  down  to  a  premature  grave,  and 
we  willingly  leave  the  closing  scene  to  those  whose  duties 
call  them  to  witness  it. 

970.  In  such  cases  as  we  have  above  described  (and 
we    leave   it    to    any    city  practitioner  in   ouc  country, 
whether  such  do  not  often  occur),  the  use  of  tight  lacing, 
whether  the  patient  has  been  habituated  to  stays,  or  cor- 
sets, from  her  childhood  or  not,  is  productive  of  the  worst 
consequences.     The  muscles  of  the    back  have  already 
been  so  diminished  and  debilitated  by  pressure,  as  to  be 
unable  to  support  the  spine,  otherwise  there  would  have 
been  no  need  of  adding  stronger  stays ;  and  in  this  con- 
dition, a  little  reflection  ought  to  show  that  the  offending 
cause  should  be  instantly  removed,  _or  at  least  relaxed  so 
as  to  allow  the  muscles  free  action ;  and  that  this,  with 
country  air,  time,  and  exercise,  would  afford  the  most 
reasonable  hope  of  cure.     But,  by  increasing  the  pres- 
sure, the  healthy  action  of  the  muscles  is  entirely  super- 
seded, and  a  condition  at  least  bordering  on  palsy  of  the 
part,  is  induced,  and  thus  the  intended  remedy  increases, 
and  confirms  the  distortion. 

971.  That  these  are  some  of  the  consequences  which 
follow   such  attempts  to  produce  fine  forms,  and  to  cure 
curved  spines,  could  have  been   inferred   from  physiolo- 
gical principles;  but  without   depending   on  inferences, 
almost  every  person  of  common  observation  has  seen  a 
sufficient  number  of   living  witnesses,  to  convince    him 
that  thousands  of  such  cases,  or  at  least  cases  of  female 
deformity,  do  exist. 

972.  No  fashionable  dressmaker    will  deny,  that  One 
in  four  or   five  of  her  customers,  among  what  are  called 
first-rate  young  ladies,  do  not  require  padding,  or  stuffing, 
on  one  part  or  another,  in  order  to  conceal  some  deform 
ity,  Qr  make  one  side  equal  with  the  other. 


304  APPENDIX. 

973.  Now  we  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  mere  ex- 
travagances, or  follies,  if  they  exist,  of  the  female  cos- 
tumes of  the  present  day  ;  our  design  being  to  speak 
only  of  such  fashions,  or  habits  of  dressing,  as  produce 
deformities  and  disease ;  and  in  this  respect,  and  on  this 
subject,  there  are  facts  so  common  and  so  deplorable  that 
they  ought  to  induce  thousands  to  raise  their  voices  and 
their  authority  against  the  practices  to  which  their  origin 
is  plainly  to  be  traced. 


EFFECTS    OF    TIGHT    LACING    UPON    THE    LUNGS. 

974.  It  is  true,  that  when  the  bones  of  animals  are  in 
a  soft  and  pliable  state,  which  is  always  the   case  when 
they  are  young,  their  natural  forms  may  be  modified,  or 
moulded  into  almost  any  shape.     Even  the  head,  togeth- 
er with  its  contents,  that  noblest  of  all  created  organs  in 
a  reasoning  being,  can  be  changed  from  its  natural  form, 
to  a  parallelogram   or  cube,  as  the  customs  of  the  flat- 
headed   Indians  abundantly  prove.     Nor  are   we   aware 
that  this  change  produces  any  evil,  either  to  the  bodily 
health,  or  intellectual  faculties ;  and  since  our  design,  as 
already    declared,    is    only    to    condemn    those    fashions 
which    by   producing    deformities    or  otherwise,  tend  to 
shorten  life,  or  produce  disease,  we  should  have  nothing 
to  say  against  the   fashion  of  moulding  the  cranium  into 
any  form  which  the  taste  of  the  age  might  propose,  if  in- 
deed, no  bad  effects  followed. 

975.  But  if  our  female  readers  will  examine  the  trunk 
of  the   human  skeleton,  represented   at  Fig.  95,  and  ob- 
serve in   what  manner  the  five  lower  ribs   are  attached, 
and  how  readily,  in  the   young  subject   especially,   they 
would  so  yield  to  the  force  of  a  tight  band,  as  greatly  to 
diminish  the  cavity  they  were  intended  to  maintain,  and 
also  remember  that  this  cavity  contains  the  vital  organs, 
the  heart  and  lungs,  neither  of  which  will  endure  pressure 
with  impunity,  we   think,  that  on   contrasting  this  with 
Fig.  137,  they  can  hardly  avoid  the  conclusion,  that  other 
sad  consequences  must  follow  the  use  of  tight  lacing  be- 
side the  deformities  we  have  described. 


EFFECTS    OF    TIGHT    LACING.  305 

976.  It  is  shown   by  Fig.  96,  and  its  description,  that 
the  lungs  are  always  in  contact  with  the  diaphragm,  and 
that  they  completely  fill  the  cavity  of  the  chest  on  each 
side  of  the  heart ;  this  cavity  cannot  therefore  be  dimin- 
ished, without  exerting  a  direct  pressure  on  the  organs  of 
respiration. 

977.  It  is  further  shown,  p.  152,  that  the  lungs  are 
composed  of  a  tissue  of  blood  and  air  vessels,  of  such  ex- 
treme  tenuity,  that  the   latter  have  been   computed  to 
amount  to  nearly  two  hundred  millions  in  number,  forming 
a  surface   of  many  hundred  feet  in  extent ;  and  that  the 
blood-vessels   are  equally  numerous,  presenting  a  surface 
similarly  extensive.     And  however  incredible  it  may  ap- 
pear, the  whole  extent  of  these  two  surfaces,  thus  present- 
ed to  each  other,  and  by  means  of  which,  a  vital  process 
is  effected,  without  which  we  could  not  live  a  moment,  is 
still  contained  within   the  narrow  spaces  occupied  by  the 
lungs  ;  each  of  which  do  not  exceed  a  foot  in  one  direc- 
tion, and  six  or  eight  inches  in  the  other. 

978.  Now  who  believes,  that  organs  so  "  wonderfully 
and  fearfully  made," — so  frail  and  delicate  in  their  struc- 
ture, as  to   present  tissues  of  circulating  vessels  scarcely 
exceeding  a  spider's  web  in  size,  will   permit  such   an 
abuse,  as  to  be  compressed  into  one  third,  or  even  one 
half  their  natural  dimensions,  without  some  punitive  inflic- 
tion on  those  who  have  the  temerity  to  offer  such  violence 
to  nature. 

979.  The  first  effect  produced  by  compressing  the  lungs, 
will  be  a  want  of  due  oxygenation  of  the  blood ;  because 
many  of  these  minute  vessels   must   thereby  be    closed 
against  the  admission  both  of  the  air  and  the  circulating* 
fluid. 

980.  By  a  reference  to  the  article  "  Circulation,"  p.  130, 
it  may  be  seen  that  in  the  amphibia,  only  one  half  of  the 
blood  circulates  through  the  lungs ;  and  that  in  the  fishes, 
there  is  no  aorta  by  which  it  is  carried  to  the  different 
parts  of  the  system  as  in  other  animals.     The  quantity 
of  blood  in   the  latter  is  also  exceedingly  small,  when 
compared  with   that  of  other  animals  of  the  same  size. 
In  the  amphibious  animals,  therefore,  the  circulating  fluid 
consists  of  one  half  arterial,  and  the   other  half  venous 
blood ;  and  on  this  account,  these  tribes  are  cold-blooded, 

26* 


306  APPENDIX. 

torpid,  and  almost  without  feeling.  In  the  fishes,  the 
small  quantity  of  the  circulating  fluid,  the  want  of  an  aorta 
to  give  it  velocity  to  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  and 
the  minute  quantity  of  air  the  water  contains  ;  all  con- 
spire to  keep  the  temperature  of  these  animals  down  to 
that  of  the  element  in  which  they  live,  and  to  give  their 
flesh  a  pallid  hue,  so  different  from  the  florid  complexion 
of  that  of  the  mammalia. 

981.  It  is  true  that  the  organization  of  these  animals, 
is  undoubtedly   well  fitted  to   their  conditions,   and  the 
places  they  were  intended  to  occupy  in  the  scale  of  crea- 
tion.   But  we  find,  as  we  rise  in  this  scale,  that  the  or- 
gans of  animals  become  more  perfect,  and   that  in  the 
mammalia,  and  man,  the  respiratory  apparatus  is  so  com- 
plete, as  to  expose  the  whole  mass  of  blood  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  atmosphere  ;  and  that  the  circulating  system 
is  such  as  to   propel  the  vital  fluid  with  great  force  and 
rapidity,  to  every  part  of  the  frame ;  and  hence  it  is,  that 
these  animals  differ  so  materially  from  those  in  which  the 
respiratory  function  is  less  perfect,  and  the  circulation  less 
rapid  and  vigorous.     In  the  former  we  find  a  temperature 
of  98°  or  100°  at  all  seasons,  instead  of  a  deathlike  cold- 
ness ;  and  a  high  degree  of  vigor  and  vivacity,  with  a  red 
muscular  fibre,  instead  of  torpor,  insensibility,  and  white 
flesh,  as  in  the  latter. 

982.  Now  if  these  very  remarkable  differences  are  in 
any  considerable  degree  dependant  on  the  quantity  of  oxy- 
gen, which  the  different  races  consume  by  the  process  of 
respiration,  and  which  the  facts  we  have  detailed  would 
seem  to  prove  beyond   all  doubt ;  then  is  it  not  as  clear, 
that  by  compressing  the  lungs  so  as  to  prevent  the  or- 
dinary supply  of  oxygen  in  respiration,  that  the  vigor  of 
the  circulation,  which  depends  on  that  process,  must  grad- 
ually be  diminished  ;  and   that  paleness,  torpor,   listless- 
ness,  arid  gradual  emaciation,  from  poverty  of  the  blood, 
and  a  consequent  want  of  a  healthy  secretion,  must  be 
the  consequence  ? 

983.  It  is  quite  certain  that  all  these  consequences,  in 
very  numerous  instances,  follow  excessive  lacing  in  young 
females  ;  and  from  the  hurried,  and  laborious  respiration, 
which  those  exhibit  who  are  undergoing   the   process  of 
being  moulded  into  a  fashionable  form,  there  cannot  be 


EFFECTS   OF    TIGHT   LACING.  30" 

a  doubt  but  the  aeration  of  the  blood  is  defective ,  and 
hence  the  necessity  of  the  quick  and  unnatural  inspira- 
tions, in  order  to  maintain  the  circulation,  which  would 
cease  the  moment  the  air  ceased  to  act  upon  it.  These 
devotees,  beside  betraying  their  sufferings  by  a  quick- 
ened respiration,  show  also  by  the  livid  color  of  the  lips, 
that  the  blood  is  not  sufficiently  decarbonized,  or  is  not 
completely  changed  from  the  dark  venous,  to  the  light 
arterial.  (See  p.  153.) 

984.  It  cannot  be  supposed  by  those  who  will  reflect 
upon  this  subject,  that  the  laws  of  the  animal  economy  can 
be  thus  disregarded  for  any  considerable  length  of  time, 
without  inducing  the  most  disastrous  consequences  to  the 
general  health  and  constitution.     Every  one  knows  that 
air  is  the  pabulum  of  life,  and  that  a  free,  pure   atmo- 
sphere is   absolutely   necessary  for  vital    and    muscular 
energy.     Whoever,  therefore,  interrupts  the  free  ingress 
of  air  to  the  lungs,  beside  the  injury  which  will  follow 
to  the  organs  themselves,  does  the  same,  in  effect,  as  to 
create  a  vitiated  atmosphere  for  her  own  use ;  since  in 
both  cases,  a  full  supply  of  oxygen  is  equally  wanting, 
and  in  both,  the  consequences  are  the  same. 

985.  Those,  therefore,  who  create  by  stays,  corsets,  or 
otherwise,  such  a  continual  pressure  on  the  lungs  as  to 
interfere  with   their  regular   and  appropriate    functions, 
may  expect  sooner  or  later,  to  suffer  either  sudden  death 
by  apoplexy,  disability  by  palsy,  or  at  least   a  gradual 
decay  of  the  constitution,  attended  with  fetid  breath,  af- 
fections of  the  lungs,  liver,  or  other  viscera,  and  which 
will  terminate  in  the  prostration,  and  final  extinction  of 
all  the  powers  of  life. 

986.  Pulmonary  Consumption  in  consequence  of  Pres- 
sure on  the  Lungs. — It  is  most  probable  that  when  a  de- 
gree of  pressure  is  made  on  the  lungs  sufficient  to  bring 
the  fine  tissue  of  vessels,  of  which  they  are  composed, 
into  such  a  state  of  collapse,  as  to  prevent  the  ingress  of 
air,  and  the  circulation  of  the  vital  fluid,  that  the  portions 
so  pressed  suffer  a  slight  degree  of  inflammation,  in  con- 
sequence of  which,  they  adhere  into  masses,  more  or  less 
solid,  thus  closing  them  entirely,  and  preventing    ever 
afterward,  though  the  pressure  may  be  removed,  the  full 


308  APPENDIX. 

and  healthful  aeration  of  the  blood.  From  this  cause, 
there  would  arise  all  the  consequences  which  come  from 
living  in  a  vitiated  atmosphere,  or  from  breathing  air 
which  contains,  perhaps,  only  one  half  the  usual  quanti- 
ty of  oxygen,  as  above  explained.  In  such  cases,  it  is 
possible  that  no  other  effect  on  the  lungs  themselves 
may  follow  ;  the  subject  gradually  declining  from  general 
debility,  and  such  poverty  of  the  blood  as  to  allow  of 
no  healthy  secretions,  and  thus  sink  down  to  the  grave 
without  the  usual  symptoms  of  pulmonary  consumption. 
Such  may  be  said  literally,  "  to  die  for  want  of  breath;" 
not  however,  stopped  by  "  the  destroying"  but  the  self- 
destroying  angel,  if  indeed  angels  ever  assist  on  such  oc- 
casions. 

987.  It  is  perhaps  singular,  that  this  state  of  the  lungs 
often  betrays  itself  by  an  offensive  breath,  without  ulcer- 
ation,  or  designed  infliction,  perhaps,  on  those  who  thus 
violate  nature's  laws.     But  if  nature  is  sometimes  slow 
in  resenting  and  avenging  the  insults  offered  her,  and  al- 
lows some  to  live  on  her  for  years  who  habitually  violate 
her  laws,  others  are  brought  to  speedy  account  for  such 
temerity  ;  for  it  is  well  known  that  blood-spitting,  hectic 
fever,  and  finally  all  the  concomitants  of  consumption  of 
the  lungs  follow   excessive   lacing,  and   many  of  which 
terminate  in  a  short  period.     Healthy  females,  who  have 
no  family  predisposition,  and  who  begin  this  practice  late 
in  life,  as  from  eighteen  to  twenty,  are  not  so  apt  to  suf- 
fer as  those  who  have  such  a  predisposition,  and  are  laced 
from  their  childhood. 

988.  In  the  former  however,  the  most  pernicious  con- 
sequences sometimes   follow,    as  where    a  fine    healthy 
country-girl,  who  never  had  been  laced,  happens  to  visit 
her  fashionable  cousins  in  town  ;  and  who  of  course,  will 
not  be  seen  in  the  streets  with  her,  in  such  a  countrified 
shape.     The  poor  girl  must,  therefore,  be  literally  screwed 
into  the  city  form,  before  she  is  allowed  to  "  see  company," 
and  having  perhaps  a  capacious  chest,  such  as  nature 
formed,  and  this  being  composed  of  a  bony  framework, 
it  is  impossible  to  bring  it  within  the  compass  of  the 
fashionable  mould,  without  lapping  the  ends  of  the  ribs 
either  over  or  under  the  breast-bone. 


EFFECTS   OF   TIGHT   LACING.  309 

989.  This  effect  follows  in  numerous  instances,  attend- 
ed with  a  hard  projection  on  one  side  of  the  breast-bone, 
and  a  hollow  on  the  other ;  or  the  bone  itself  in   other 
instances,  has  one  of  the  edges  thrown  outward  and   the 
other  turned  inward,  consequently  because  the  lungs,  as 
already  shown,  entirely  fill  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  one 
or  both  of  the  lobes,  beside  the  general   pressure,   must 
suffer  a  local  injury  from  the   interior  protuberance  thus 
formed. 

990.  More  than  one  instance  of  this  effect  from  exces- 
sive lacing,  has  come  within  the  knowledge  of  the  author ; 
and  more  than  one  who  reads  these  observations  will  ac- 
knowledge perhaps  mentally,  the  truth  of  the  statements 
here  made,  and  will  be  able  to  bring  examples  either  in 
themselves  or  their  friends. 

991.  Dr.  Morton' 's  Case, proving  the  above  Assertions. — 
But  since   many  profess  to  doubt  the  injurious  consequen- 
ces of  tight-lacing  on   the  lungs,  at  least  so  far  as  them- 
selves are  concerned,  we  will  here  offer  an  abstract  of  a 
case  for  the  consideration  of  such ;   and  which  we  cannot 
but  hope  will  be  thought  worthy  of  serious  notice  by  our 
female   readers.     It  is  from  a  work  on   consumption,  by 
Dr.  Morton,  of  Philadelphia. 

992.  "  A  lady,"  says  he,  "  aged  thirty-two  years,  of 
strong  constitution,  and  good  frame,  but  of  a  nervous  tem- 
perament,  with  dark  hair,  and  brunett   complexion,  had 
been   for  some  time  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Hodge,  for  an 
attack  of  severe  nervous  irritation  ;  when  in  the  absence 
of  that  gentleman,  I  was  requested  to  see  her  on  the  6th 
of  May,  1833.     On  my  arrival,  I  found  her  dying,  and 
she  survived  but  a  few  hours. 

993.  "  There  was  no  obvious  emaciation,  but  the  thorax 
was  contracted  by  a  depression   of  the  breast-bone,  so 
as  to  reduce  the  diameter  between  it  and  the  spine.     On 
removing  the  pectoral  muscles,  the  five  or  six  superior 
ribs  were  observed  to  be  considerably  depressed  at  their 
extremities,  where  the  cartilages  joined  them  to  the  ster- 
num, and  at  which   point  there  was  a  remarkable  angle 
which  protruded  into  the  thorax.     The  left  lung  adhered 
at  its  apex,  at  which  point  the  pleura  [the  membrane 
covering  the  interior  of  the  ribs],  was  deeply  contracted 


310  APPENDIX. 

or  puckered.  Within  was  observed  a  rounded  white 
mass,  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  composed  of  little 
grains  of  a  cartilaginous  firmness  :  this  was  obviously  a 
cicatrized  [healed]  abscess,  and  in  its  centre  were  two 
or  three  crude  tubercles  [the  commencement  of  suppura- 
tive  ulcers].  The  remainder  of  the  lung  was  perfectly 
healthy. 

994.  "  The  right  lung,  like  the  left,  adhered  at  the  apex, 
where   the   pleura  was  also  deeply  sunk,  and  puckered ; 
beneath  one  of  these  plications  was  the  remains  of  an  old, 
but  very  small  abscess,  half  filled  with  granular  matter, 
like   that  in  the  other  lung,  excepting  that   it  was  of  a 
darker  color  :  the  remainder  of  the  abscess  was  in  a  sup- 
purative  state,   and  contained   yellow  matter.     Close  by 
were  the  evidences  of  a  second  cavity,  of  the  size  of  a  fil- 
bert, but  perfectly  filled,  and  consolidated  by  white  granu- 
lar matter,  precisely  like  that  of  the  left  lung.     The  other 
parts  were  healthy. 

995.  "  The    unexpected    morbid    appearances   of  the 
lungs,"  says  Dr.  Morton,  "  induced  me  to  inquire  into  the 
previous  history  of  the  patient,  when  I  was  informed  by  a 
near  relative,  that  in  early  life  she  had  habituated  herself 
to  excessive  tight  lacing ;  but  although  she  had  never  ex- 
perienced any  obvious  ill  effects  from  this  practice,  she  had 
of  late  years  discontinued  the  practice,  from  a  conviction 
of  its  injurious  tendency. 

996.  "  It  seems  probable,  therefore,"  he  continues,  "  all 
circumstances  considered,  that  the  lungs  became  tubercu- 
lous and   cavernous  from  the   irritation   of  mechanica* 
pressure ;  but  on  the  latter  being  removed,  the  morbid 
secretion  ceased,  and   the  cavities   became  cicatrized  and 
obliterated  in  the  manner  just  mentioned.     Can  there  be 
a  doubt  that  if  this  lady  had  persisted  in  the  unnatural 
confinement  of  her  respiratory  organs,  the  tuberculous  dis- 
ease would  have  extended,  the  abscesses  enlarged,  and 
the  disease  become  a  fatal  malady  ?     The  predisposition 
to  phthisis  [consumption]  being  slight,  it  was  suspended 
by  the  removal  of  the  exciting  mechanical  cause ;  show- 
ing what  important  results  physical  education  may  pro- 
duce on  the  human  frame."* 


•Illustrations  of  Consumption,  by  Samuel  George  Morton,  M.  P.,  &o., 
&c.,  pp.  99.    Key  &  Biddle,  Philadelphia,  1834. 


EFFECTS   OF   TIGHT    LACING.  311 

997  Says  Dr.  Reid,  "  very  straight  lacing,  and  strain- 
ing for  a  fine  shape,  hath  made  many  a  fine  girl  spit  blood, 
and  ruined  the  lungs  by  preventing  a  full  and  free  respi- 
ration." On  Consumption,  p.  99. 

998.  Now  since    the  practice  of  tight  lacing,    if  not 
universal,  is  at  least  exceedingly  common,  and  as  the  re- 
mains of  comparatively  few  who  die  of  diseases  of  the 
lungs  are  submitted  to  post-mortem  examination,  it  is  im- 
possible to  give  any  conjecture  of  the  number  who  destroy 
themselves  in  this  way.     But  I  have  no  doubt  that  the 
ladies  themselves,  to   a  considerable   extent,  will   agree 
with   me  in    believing,  that  hundreds,  nay  thousands^  of 
females  literally  kill  themselves  every  year  by  this  fashion 
in  our  own  country  :  and  if  suicide  is  a  crime,  how  will 
such  escape  in  the  day  of  Jinal  account ! 

999.  We  have  represented  by  figures  134  and  135  the 
difference  between  a  natural  human  skeleton,  and  one  in 

Fig.  134.  Fig.  135. 


which  the  pressure  of  stays  has  pushed  the  front  ends 
of  the  ribs  inward,  bending  the  soft  cartilages,  so  as  to 
make  them  form  acute  angles  outward.  It  will  be  obvi- 
ous to  those  who  will  reflect  on  this  subject,  even  only 
for  a  moment,  that  the  ribs  cannot  possibly  sustain  the 
force  often  applied  to  them  in  the  process  of  forming  a 
slim  waist,  in  a  girl  of  eighteen,  without  yielding  in  one 
direction  or  another;  otherwise,  and  if  the  circumfer- 
ence remained  the  same,  no  difference  would  be  made 
in  the  size  of  the  chest,  except  that  resulting  from  the 
compression  of  the  fleshy  fibres  by  which  it  is  covered ; 


•312  APPENDIX. 

and  this  certainly  is  not  sufficient  to  account  for  the 
effects  actually  produced.  If  we  undertake  to  diminish 
the  circumference  of  a  hoop,  we  shall  find  it  impossible 
to  do  so,  without  having  the  ends  where  the  circle  is 
joined  shoot  by,  or  lap  over  each  other.  The  lower  ribs, 
the  cartilages  of  which  join  the  breast-bone  obliquely, 
leaving  a  space  between  their  ends,  may  be  pressed  so 
as  to  diminish  the  circumference,  by  forcing  these  parts 
inward  upon  the  lungs,  without  producing  this  effect; 
but  the  upper  ribs  which  are  continued  directly  forward 
to  the  breast-bone,  by  their  cartilages,  cannot  have  their 
circumferences  shortened  without  doubling  these  parts 
upon  their  ends.  The  consequence  of  this  will  be,  that 
these  ends,  on  one  side  or  the  other,  must  project  inward 
upon  the  lungs,  as  shown  in  the  case  dissected  by  Dr 
Morton,  and  stated  above. 

1000.  The  diminution  of  capacity  in  Fig.  135,  when 
compared  with  134,  is  not  nearly  so  great  as  wre  believe 
actually  takes  place  in  many  instances  of  tight  lacing 
the  figure  being  made  to  show  the  displacement  of  parts 
in  the  skeleton,  by  that  process,  rather  than  the  extent  of 
its  effects. 

MORTALITY    OF    CONSUMPTIVE    DISEASES. 

1001.  In  Great  Britain  it  is  estimated  that  50,OuO  per- 
sons die  annually  of  consumption. 

1002.  In  the  city  of  New  York,  the  whole  number  of 
deaths  of  all  ages  and  diseases,  in  five  years,  namely,  from 
the  beginning  of  1829  to  the  end  of  1834,  was  31,822, 
making  a  yearly  average  of  6364. 

1003.  Now  it  is  known  by  the  reports  of  the  inspector, 
that  nearly  one  in  five  of  the  mortality  of  that  city,  are 
of  consumption,  in  one  form  or  another,  which  give  the 
number  of  1272  per  year,  who  die  of  this  disease,  in  that 
city    alone.     The   cities  of  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and 
Boston,  present  similar  bills  of  mortality  from  the  same 
cause  ;  and  these  bills  also  show  that  much  the  largest 
proportion  of  these  are  females.     But  there  is  no  reason 
to  believe  that  females  are,  from  their  organization,  any 
more  predisposed  to  consumption  than  the  males.     How 
then   shall  we  account  for  the  difference  of  mortality 


PREVENTION    OF    SPINAL    DISTORTION.  313 

from  the  disease,  but  by  attributing  it  to  a  mode  of  dress, 
which  no  one  will  deny,  does  in  many  instances  at  least, 
not  only  create  such  a  predisposition,  but  actually  and 
obviously  brings  on  the  disease ;  and  from  which  the 
males,  even  of  the  same  families,  escape,  by  using  a  dress 
which  allows  the  functions  of  the  lungs  to  be  continued 
agreeably  to  the  laws  of  natural  economy,  and  the  design 
of  the  Creator. 

PREVENTION    OF    SPINAL    DISTORTION. 

1004.  It  is  no  part  of  the  plan  of  this  work  to  point 
out  the  methods  of  cure  proposed,  and  practised  by  sur- 
geons  and   physicians,  for  the  various  deformities    and 
other  affections  in   young  females,  consequent  upon  the 
causes  which  have  been  noticed  in  the  foregoing  pages. 
And  yet,  we  can  hardly  avoid  saying  a  few  words  on  this 
subject  for  the  purpose  of  showing  young  ladies  what 
terrible    remedies    are    employed    for   these    deformities, 
and  how  difficult  it  is  to  cure  them,  even  in  their  incipient 
stages.     This  we  do  as  a  warning  to  those  who  are  still 
in  the  enjoyment  of  their  natural  forms,  not  to  make  use 
of  any  of  the  means,  or  indulge  themselves  in  any  of  the 
habits  which  we  have  described   as  the  causes  of  such 
evils.     And  also,  a  caution  to  mothers,  how  they  encour- 
age their  young  daughters  in  tight  lacing  for  the  sake  of 
procuring  genteel  forms,  lest  thereby  they  should  thus  be- 
come  the  authors  of  disgusting  diseases  which  art  can 
never  remedy,  instead  of  the  fine  shapes  which  they  ex- 
pect will  be  so  much  admired  and  coveted. 

1005.  The  attempts  heretofore  most  commonly  made 
to  cure  curved  spines  have  been  by  means  of  various 
machines,  consisting  of  beams,  bars,  pulleys,  ropes,  screws, 
inclined  planes,  straps  and  buckles,  more  or  less  of  which 
are  combined,  and  applied  in  different  ways,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  case,  or  the   skill  of  the  mechanic  by 
whom  these  machines  are  employed. 

1006.  The  late  Mr.  Shaw,  a  surgeon  of  reputation  in 
London,  who  has  written  a  treatise  on  the  cure  of  curved 
spines,  says  that  it  is  the  practice  of  some  to  keep  young 
girls  afflicted  with  this  disease  in  a  horizontal  position, 
for  months,  and  even  for  years,  "  without  intermission." 

27 


314  APPENDIX. 

1007.  Stretching  machines  are  also  employed,  which, 
by  means  of  straps  passing  under  the  chin,  and   around 
the  back  of  the  head,  keep  the  spine  in  a  continued  state 
of  tension.     Nearly    the  whole    weight   of  the    body    is 
suspended  by  the  straps,  and  thus   are   often   used,  until 
the  chin  becomes  ulcerated  and  the  countenance  perfectly 
deformed,   in   consequence    of    their    pressure    on    these 
parts. 

1008.  Another  invention  for  the  same  purpose  consists 
of  complicated  machinery  fitted  to  the  back,  and   which 
the  miserable   sufferer   is    doomed   constantly   to    wrear. 
With  respect  to  one  of  these,  Mr.  Shaw  says,  "  I  could 
not  have  believed  (had  I  not  seen  the  fact)  that  with  the 
most  determined   resolution   to  endure  pain,  any   person 
would  have  submitted  to  the  punishment  of  carrying  such 
a  machine  on  the  back  for  twelve  months." 

1009.  Of  the  stretching  chair,  another  apparatus  for 
"straightening  young  spines,  Mr.  Shaw  says,  "  The  wind- 
lass by  which  the   crane  is  elevated,  and  to  which  the 
patient's  head  is  proposed  to  be  attached,  is  so  powerful 
that  it  might  almost  tear  the  head  from  the  body." 

1010.  For  the  same  purpose  the  rope  and  pulley  is  not 
only  used,  so  as  to  raise  the  patient  from  the  ground  by 
the  chin,  but  to  keep  them  thus  suspended  for  some  time. 
"  Until,"  says  Mr.  Shaw,  "  I  saw  several  patients  under- 
go this  experiment,  I  could  not  believe  that  it  was  ever 
put  into  practice ;  for  it  is  quite  obvious  that  while  a  child 
is  suspended  by  the  chin,  the  ligaments  of  the  neck  must 
be  stretched  to  a  dangerous  degree."     On  examining  girls 
who  have  been  daily  swung  up  for  months,  in  this  manner, 
the  same  writer  found,  that  the  muscles  passing  from  the 
head  to  the  neck,  were  so  increased  in  size,  as  to  make  a 
new  species  of  deformity. 

1011.  It  ought,  however,  to  be  understood,  that  these 
are  the  methods  employed  by  quacks  and  the  irregular 
practitioners  for  the  cure  of  distorted   spines,   and  that 
most  of  them  are  condemned  by  well-educated  physicians. 
In  this  country  similar  machines  are  made  use  of  for  the 
same  purposes,  and  with  what  success  the  patients  and 
their  friends  are  the   best  judges.     It  is  certain,  however, 
that  the  patient  as  well  as  her  friends,  are  often  deceived 
by  an  apparent  cure,  when  the  disease  and  distortion  are 


PREVENTION   OF   SPINAL   DISTORTION.  315 

only  confirmed  and  increased  by  this  kind  of  treatment. 
The  spine,  it  is  true,  may  be  stretched  into  shape  by 
screws  and  pulleys,  but  if  the  muscles  of  the  back  are 
pressed,  or  their  action  superseded  by  the  machinery,  the 
cure  will  be  found  to  last  no  longer  than  the  machine  is 
employed,  and  when  this  is  removed  the  curvature  will 
gradually  return,  and  probably  become  worse  than  before, 
because  the  muscles  by  inaction  are  still  less  able  to  sup- 
port it  in  the  erect  position  than  when  such  treatment 
commenced. 

1012.  A  variety  of  other  machines  beside  those  above 
mentioned,  have  been  invented  and  are  employed  for  the 
same  purpose,  both  in  Europe  and  in  our  own  country. 
One  of  these  is  constructed  for  the   express  purpose  of 
forcing  the  vertebrse  into  their  places,  under  the  mistaken 
notion  that  in  certain  cases  of  distorted  spines  these  bones 
are  dislocated.     There  is  no  doubt  but  many  a  sufferer 
from  spinal  distortion,  through  the  ignorance  of  herself, 
her  family,  and  of  the  practitioner,  have  fallen  disabled 
victims  to  the  use  of  these  machines.     But  perhaps  enough 
has  been  said  on  this  subject. 

1013.  It  is  not  pretended  that  want  of  exercise,  im- 
proper postures  in  sitting,  and  the  use  of  excessive  la- 
cing, are  the  sole  causes  of  spinal  distortions.     On  the 
contrary,  these  affections  are  sometimes  the  consequences 
of  diseases  which  probably  no  prudence  or  foresight  on 
the  part  of  the  sufferer  or  her  friends,  could  have  avoided. 
But  that  the  greatest  proportion  of  these  cases  are  owing 
to  the  causes  assigned,  those  who  "will  examine  the  subject 
will  not  have  the  least  doubt. 

1014.  Girls  from  their  organization,  are  no  more  ob- 
noxious to  these  affections  than  boys,  but  with  the  excep- 
tion of  rickets,  to  which  both  sexes  are  liable,  we  may 
look  almost  in  vain  for  a  case  of  spinal  distortion  among 
the  latter.     And  besides,  if  we  go  into  the  country,  where 
fashion  allows  nature,  and  not  art,  to  mould  the  female 
form,  and  where  the  children  of  both  sexes  take  nearly 
the  same  amount  of  the  same  kind  of  exercise,  in  the 
open  air,  there  will  be  found   but  little  difference  in  the 
number  of  spinal  distortions  in  the  two  sexes,  instances 
of  either  being  comparatively  rare. 

1015.  If  then,  parents  and  school  teachers  would  avoid 


APPEN 


o 

3 16  APPENDIX 

the  evils  in  question,  they  must  remember  that  the  first 
and  grand  rule  in  physical  education,  is,  or  ought  to  be, 
never  to  interfere  with,  or  disregard  the  laws  of  the  ani- 
mal  economy,  in  the  treatment  of  their  children,  or 
pupils. 

1016.  We   do    not   mean  by  this,  that  children   and 
scholars  are  not  to  be  placed  under  restraint,  or  that  a 
proper  and  wholesome  degree  of  discipline  is  unnecessary 
or  improper.     On   the  contrary,  a  full  liberty  of  person 
and  action  during  the  buoyancy  and  inexperience  of  youth, 
would  lead  to  opposite  consequences,  more  to  be  dreaded 
than  the  strictest  discipline  to  which  children  have  ever 
been  subjected.     But  in  no  event  should  the  discipline  of 
children  be  such  as  to  interfere  with,  or  counteract  the 
physiological  functions  of  any  portion  of  their  growing 
systems.     And  we   need  not   repeat  here   what  we  have 
already  spent  so  many  pages  in  showing,  that  young  ani- 
mals have  a  natural  propensity  to   muscular  action,  and 
without  which,  it  is  impossible  they  should  make  well- 
formed  and  healthy  adults. 

1017.  Now  the  muscles  of  the  spine,  in  common  writh 
those  of  the   other  parts  of  th'e  system,  require  almost 
constant  exercise  in  the  young,  during  their  waking  hours ; 
and  not  only  so,  their  inaction,  or  unnatural  contractions, 
as  we  have  abundantly  shown,  are  peculiarly  liable  to  be 
attended  with  the  most  unfortunate  consequences.     The 
peculiar  structure  of  this  part  being  composed  of  alter- 
nate pieces  of  bone  and  cartilage,  renders  it  peculiarly 
liable    to    grow  out  of  shape  in  youth,  for  the  reasons 
already  assigned,  and  when  once  a  distortion  of  this  col- 
umn commences,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  prevent  its 
ruining  the  symmetry  of  the  form,  and  still  more  so  to 
bring  it  back  to  its  original  position.     Distortions  of  this 
part,  indeed,  are  often  so  insidious  and  gradual,  that  not 
a  friend,  nor  even  the  subject  herself  is  aware  of  it,  until 
it  has  made  such  progress  as  to  be  apparent  to  a  common 
observer.      And  it  will  perhaps   astonish  some  of  our 
readers  to  know  that  in  our  cities,  probably  one  in   six 
are  thus  deformed. 

1018.  To  prevent  distortions  of  the  spine  and  shoulders 
in  young  females,  it  may  be  inferred  from  the  physiological 
principles  we  have  explained,  and  the  facts  we  have 

' 


PREVENTION   OF   SPINAL   DISTORTION.  3 17 

stated,  that  it  is  necessary,  first,  to  avoid  tight  lacing ; 
second,  to  avoid  improper  positions  at  school,  and  certain 
modes  of  dress ;  third,  that  the  seats  in  the  school-room 
should  be  provided  with  backs  ;  fourth,  that  the  time  usu- 
ally occupied  in  study  at  school,  should  be  diminished ; 
and  fifth,  that  the  students  should  be  allowed  to  take 
abundance  of  exhilarating  exercise,  such  as  nature  requires 
in  the  open  air. 

1019.  Every  seat  should  be  furnished  with  a  back,  not 
however  with  a  narrow  strip  elevated  so  as  to  come  across 
the  shoulder  blades;  but  a  continuous  support  from  the 
bench  to  the  height  of  about  two  feet,  and  not  standing 
perpendicularly,  but  curved  a  little  backward.     By  such 
a  back  the  spinal  column  is  properly  supported. 

1020.  School-rooms  ought  to  be  furnished  with  desks 
at  which  the  pupils  can  write  in  the  standing  posture. 
These  need  not  exceed  one  half  or  perhaps  one  third  the 
number  of  pupils,  and  may  be  used  in  rotation. 

1021.  Four  or  five  hours  per  day,  spent  in  close  study 
and  recitations,  is  perhaps  as  much  time  as  can  be  em- 
ployed to  the  mental  and  corporeal  advantage  of  pupils 
from   twelve  to  sixteen  years  of  age.     And  young  chil- 
dren ought  not  to  be  kept  in  their  places  more  than  an 
hour  at  a  time,  after  which  some  little  pleasant  relaxation 
should  be  allowed,  and  in  which  the  teachers  should  par- 
ticipate. 

1022.  Every  school-house  for  young  children  should, 
if  possible,  have  a  play-ground,  furnished  with  implements 
for  amusement,  adapted  to  their  ages.     And  seminaries 
for  young  ladies  should  be  provided  with  a  romping  yard, 
with  a  high  fence,  and  a  shed  on  one  side,  for  exercise 
in  bad  weather.     This  should  be  furnished   with  bows 
and   arrows,    and    such   other   instruments   of    exciting 
amusement  as  may  be  found  most  agreeable  to  the  ages 
of  the  pupils ;  and  here  they  should  be  allowed  to  enjoy 
an  hour,  or  half  an  hour,  at  proper  intervals,  several  times 
during  the  day. 

1023.  If  these   suggestions   are  carried  into    general 
practice,  we  cannot  but  believe  that  the  number  of  de- 
formed shoulders,  crooked  spines,  pale  faces,  and  con- 
sumptive diseases,  would  be  greatly  diminished  among  our 
females. 

27* 


318  APPENDIX. 

1024.  Effects  of  Stays  on  the  Size,  Vigor,  and  Health 
of  our  Species. — Beside  the  consequences  ascribed  to  the 
uses  of  stays,  in  the  foregoing  pages,  there  is  another 
effect  to  be  noticed,  which,  so  far  as  we  know,  has  been  en- 
tirely overlooked,  or  at  least  unnoticed,  by  writers  on  the 
subject  of  physical  education ;  but  which  the  patriot  and 
philanthropist  cannot  but  consider  as  highly  important. 
We  mean  the  effects  of  tight  lacing  on  our  species  in  a 
national  point  -of  view. 

1025.  It  has  been  shown  in  the  preceding  pages,  that 
when  any  portion  of  the  animal   system,  and  especially 
the  soft  parts,  are  pressed,  nature  sets  herself  to  work,  and 
because  she  cannot  remove  the  offending  cause,  avenges 
herself  of  the  insult,  by  removing  through  the  absorbent 
system,  the  parts  pressed  upon,  arid  thus  relieves  herself 
of  the  injury. 

1026.  Now  the  glands,  or  organs  which  secrete  the 
fluids  peculiar  to  the  several   parts  of  the  system,  are 
particularly  sensible  to  injuries  of  this  kind ;  and  when 
they  occur,  nature  evinces  her  resentment  by  a  speedy 
reduction,   or  sometimes  by  the  entire  removal  of   the 
offended  organ.    -In  case  the  gland  happens  to  be  one 
which  nature  intended  should  be  prominent,  the  continu- 
ance of  the  pressure  will  either  prevent  its  full  develop- 
ment, or  if  already  developed,  will  reduce  it  to  the  com- 
mon level  of  the  surface  where  it  is  situated.     These  are 
well-known  physiological  facts,  of  which  the  physician 
in  his  practice,  and  the  common  observer  in  his  observa- 
tions, have  undoubtedly  seen  numerous  instances. 

1027.  The  class  of  animals  called  mammalia,  as  al- 
ready explained,  receives  its  name  from  the  presence  of 
certain  glands,  called  the  lactescent,  which  are  common  to 
all  the  species,  and  which  are  designed  to  secrete  suste- 
nance, for  the   continuance  of  the  races  to  which  they 
severally  give  existence ;  and  without  such  an  organiza- 
tion, no  tribe  of  animals  can  claim  a  place  in  the  natural- 
history  arrangement  of  this  most  important  division  of 
the  animal  kingdom. 

1028.  When  this  class  was  formed,  the  order  called 
bimana,  or  two-handed,  of  which  man  is  the  only  species, 
there  was  no  want  of  those  peculiar  qualifications  in  our 
race,  which  constitute  membership  in  it  j  but  at  the  pres- 


EFFECTS  .OF   STAYS.  319 

ent  time,  this  order,  at  least  in  many  parts  of  our  coun 
try,  has  lost,  in  a  lamentable  degree,  and  in  some  speci- 
mens entirely,  those  marks  by  which  its  individuals  once 
claimed  a  prominent  rank  among  mammiferous  animals. 
And  if  the  use  of  stays,  corsets,  steel  busks,  and  their 
adjuvants,  continue  to  inflict  their  marks  on  future  gener- 
ations, as  they  do  on  the  present,  the  order  bimana  will 
undoubtedly  deserve  to  lose  its  place  in  the  mammalia 
class  ;  since  there  will  issue  an  entire  extinction  of  those 
natural  organs,  which  form  the  chief  characteristic  of 
this  class,  and  from  which  its  name  is  derived. 

1029.  The  loss  of  membership  among  the  mammalia, 
it  is  true,  is  of  little  importance  except  to  the  naturalist ; 
but  to  the  patriot,  and  moralist,  the  extinction  of  these 
prominent  traits  which   once  distinguished  the  gender  of 
our  species,  cannot  but  create  feelings  of  commiseration, 
and   regret,  since   such   a  deformity   not  only  involves  a 
violation  of  the  laws  of  nature  and  morality;  the  first  by 
suppressing  the  growth  of  important  parts  of  the  animal 
system,  and  the  second  by  the  hazard  of  health  and  life 
as  a  consequence  ;  but  it  also  inevitably  leads  to  a  dete- 
rioration of  the  species,  with  respect  to  stature,  form,  and 
constitution. 

1030.  It  is  true  that  stays  are  no  recent  invention, 
having  been  knowrn  to  the  nations  of  Europe,  before  our 
fathers  and  mothers  came  to  these  shores ;  and  therefore 
it  perhaps    may  be   objected  that  the  consequences  we 
have  attributed  ta  them,  may  with  the  same  probability 
have  happened   formerly   as  now.     But  the  construction 
of  this  article  o£  dress,  though  called  by  the  same  name, 
is  materially  different  from  what  it  formerly  was,  as  any 
one  may  convince  herself  by  hunting  up,  and  examining 
those  worn  by  her  grandmother.     These  will  be  found 
so  constructed  as  not  in   the  least  to  interfere  with  the 
expansion  of  the  upper  half  of  the  bust;  while  those  of 
the    present    day,    it    may  be  presumed  from  the  forms 
moulded  into   them,  are   so   made  as  either  to  present  a 
barrier  of  whalebone,  or  steel,  to  an  unequal   expansion 

.  of  the  parts  which  they  encompass  ;  or  if  any  such  pro- 
vision is  allowed,  it  must  be  rather  in  the  region  of  the 
shoulder-blades,  than  in  that  of  the  anterior  portion  of 
the  bust. 


320 


APPENDIX. 


1031.  The  fact  that  the  female  form  has  undergone  a 
very  material  change  within  the  last  20  years,  and  that 
this  change  has  been  caused  by  the  pressure  of  stays  on 
parts  of  the  system  which  are  of  the   utmost  importance 
to  the  nutrition,  and  consequent  growth,  and  health  of  our 
species,  cannot,  and  will  not  be  denied  by  any  competent 
witness.     And  that  we  shall  become  a  stinted,  puny,  and 
short-lived  race,  in   consequence,  it  requires  no  more  in- 
spiration to  predict,  than  it  does  to  foretell  that  starvation 
will  produce  dwarfs  in  infancy,  and  emaciation  in  adults. 

1032.  The  effects,  indeed,  are  already  visible  in  the 
number   of  pale,  dwarfish,  and  crooked   children,  which 
may  be  seen  in  the  schools  and  streets  of  all  our  cities,  and 
many  of  our  smaller  towns  and  villages.     And  whoever, 
having  been  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the  rising  gener- 
ation, will  contrast,  so  far  as  she  can  recollect,  the  aspect 
of  a  school  composed  of  both  sexes,  at  the  present  day, 
with  the  appearance  of  the  same  number  and  ages,  15  or 
20  years  ago,  cannot,  we  think,  but  be   convinced,  that 
that  there  has  been  a  great  deterioration  in  our  youth,  both 
in  respect  to  form,,  size,  and  healthy  looks. 

1033.  And  who,  we  inquire,  would  not  expect  to  see 
such  a  change  in  our  race,  when  they  behold  such  a  meta- 

Fig.  136.  Fig.  137. 


Venus  de  Medicis.  A  Modern  Lady. 

morphosis  in  the  better  half  of  our  species,  as  to  hnvi? 
produced  from  a  stock  like  that  represented  by  Fig.  136, 


EFFECTS   OF   STAYS. 

a  progeny  like  that  shown  by  Fig.  137.  In  the  first,  the 
parts  which  are  essential  to  the  nutrition  and  growth  of 
incipient  respiratory  beings,  are  so  developed  as  to 
insure  a  full  supply  of  lactescent  secretion ;  while  in  the 
second,  the  corresponding  parts  present  a  mere  pre- 
tence, a  nullity,  a  source  of  starvation,  rather  than  one 
of  sustenance,  to  the  nascent  beings,  who  are  so  unfortu- 
nate as  to  be  thrown  upon  such  cotton  and  wool  resources 
of  existence. 

1034.  But  what  possible  motive  could  have  induced 
the  females  of  the  present  age,  and  especially  those  of 
these  United  States  (where  ultraism  in  respect  to  this  de- 
formity is  carried  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  in  any 
other  country),  what,   we  ask,  could  have  moved  those 
among  us,  who  have  the  first  care  of  the  species,  and  who 
ought  to  be  our  examples  in  moral  rectitude  and  conser- 
vative discretion,  to  have  thus  deprived  themselves  of  the 
power  of  fulfilling  one  of  the  very  first  of  nature's  laws  ? 

1035.  Can  it  be  for  the  purpose  of  making  themselves 
more  agreeable,  and  more  acceptable  to  the  lords  of  crea- 
tion 1     Then  certainly  their  motives  ought  to  meet  with 
the  law  of  kindness,  and  the  tortures  through  which  they 
are  willing  to  pass  in  order  to  arrive  at  perfection — the 
sympathy   and  commiseration  of  those  for   whom   such 
perils  are  encountered.     But  whatever  motives  might  have 
led  to  a  deformity  so  unnatural,  it  is  certain  that  the  Crea- 
tor intended,  that  the  "  noblest  work  of  his  hands,"  should 
possess  the  most  perfect  forms ;  and  therefore,  except  to 
a  depraved   and  vitiated  taste,  such  forms  will  ever  be 
most  admired,  and  most  acceptable  to  those  for  whom 
they  were  designed. 

1036.  It  is  true  that  there  are  parts  of  our  country 
where  the  practice  of  excessive  lacing,  and  therefore  its 
degenerating   consequences  do  not  exist ;    and  whence 
we  are  happy  to  know  that  many  of  the  daughters  of 
unsophisticated  nature   are  transplanted  into  our  cities, 
there    to   become   the   fostering  angels   of  a  renovated 
species.     And  were  it  not  that  such  resources  still  remain, 
the  consequences  of  fashion  in  all  our  cities  would  have 
been  by  far  more  degenerating  than  they  are  at  present. 
Indeed   we  cannot  but  believe,  were   our  large  towns 


APPENDIX. 

walled,  and  their  inhabitants  under  the  necessity  of 
depending  on  each  other  for  the  continuance  of  our  spe- 
cies, that,  under  the  dominion  of  the  present  code  of 
fashions,  the  human  race  within  their  walls  would  finally, 
not  only  become  perfect  Lilliputians  in  size  and  mind, 
but  that  they  would  be  known  to  future  ages  only  as  a 
fossil  race,  the  types  of  which  would  nowhere  be  found 
on  our  earth  in  the  recent  state.  But  we  must  at  present 
leave  this  subject,  we  hope,  to  resume  it  again  in  a  trea- 
tise more  particularly  directed  to  mothers  ;  and  contain- 
ing a  detail  of  facts  and  circumstances,  calculated  to 
enlighten  the  minds,  and  touch  the  feelings  of  those  who 
have  the  welfare  of  their  country  and  their  species  at 
heart. 


•-         .  '  '*» 


APPENDIX    B. 

HUMAN     ANATOMY, 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  HUMAN  SYSTEM. 

IN  this  synopsis  of  Human  Anatomy,  we  propose  to 
give  a  view  of  the  whole  subject,  and  then  describe  and 
illustrate  such  particular  parts  as  will  be  most  useful  and 
intelligible  to  the  student  or  general  reader. 

Human  anatomy  is  subdivided  into  descriptive,  and 
morbid  or  pathological. 

Descriptive  anatomy  embraces  a  description  of  the 
different  organs  of  the  system,  together  with  their  rela- 
tive situations  and  connections  ;  it  determines  the  text- 
ures of  which  they  are  formed,  enumerates  the  nerves 
and  blood-vessels  by  which  they  are  supplied,  and  gives 
general  and  particular  details  concerning  their  organiza- 
tions. Having  done  this,  descriptive  anatomy  proceeds  to 
point  out  the  analogies  that  subsist  among  the  materials 
of  which  the  several  organs  are  composed,  and  is  thus 
led  to  specify  the  several  constituents  of  the  human  body. 

Morbid  or  Pathological  anatomy  comprehends  the 
description  of  the  effects  of  disease  on  the  healthy  struct- 
ures, and  points  out  the  changes  of  texture,  and  of  com- 
position and  appearance,  which  they  have  suffered  in  con- 
sequence of  morbid  action. 

Description  of  the  different  Parts  and  Organs  of 
which  the  Human  Body  is  composed. — -Anatomical 
writers  first  direct  the  student's  attention  to  that  branch 
of  the  subject  termed  Osteology,  which  means  a  de- 
How  is  anatomy  subdivided  ?  What  is  descriptive  anatomy  ?  What  is 
morbid  anatomy  ?  What  branch  of  anatomy  is  first  studied  ?  What  is  meant 
by  osteology  ? 


324  APPENDIX. 

scription  of  the  bones,  or  skeleton.  These  constitute  the 
hardest  and  most  enduring  portion  of  the  animal  system, 
and  on  which  its  form  and  stability  depend. 

In  very  young  animals  the  bones  are,  comparatively, 
soft  and  yielding,  so  that  many  of  them  may  be  forced 
out  of  their  usual  forms  by  slight  causes.  As  the  an- 
imal advances  to  the  adult  state,  these  parts  assume  a 
a  more  solid  form,  and  from  a  flexible  consistence  be- 
come rigid,  and  many  of  them  even  brittle. 

In  contemplating  this  bony  skeleton,  when  it  has  be- 
come perfect  and  fitted  for  the  support  of  the  whole  fab- 
*  ric,  and  the  actions  of  the  muscles  with  which  it  is  every 
where  surrounded,  we  can  not  but  be  struck  with  the  ad- 
mirable adaptation,  and  the  mutually  befitting  connection 
of  which  its  various  parts  consist.  The  number  of  bones 
in  the  whole  frame  amount  to  about  250,  including  the 
teeth.  Many  of  these  are  connected  by  surfaces  which 
mutually  correspond  to  each  other,  as  the  thigh  bone, 
which  has  a  round  head,  most  perfectly  fitted  into  a  semi- 
spherical  socket,  having,  therefore,  free  motion  in  every 
direction.  Others,  as  the  knee-joint,  have  grooves  in  the 
two  opposite  ends  of  the  bones  filling  each  other,  and, 
therefore,  have  motion  only  in  two  directions.  In  others, 
as  in  the  shoulder-blade,  and  the  ribs,  the  motion  is  quite 
limited,  there  being  no  proper  joint  by  which  it  can  be 
effected. 

Articulation. — All  the  bones  are  connected  with  each 
other  by  what  anatomists  call  articulation.  Where 
motion  is  required,  the  evils  of  friction  between  the  two 
surfaces  are  perfectly  provided  for  by  the  peculiarity  of 
each  articulation,  the  two  ends  of  the  bones  being  cov- 
ered by  soft,  elastic  cushions,  composed  of  a  substance 
called  cartilage,  the  whole  being  lubricated  by  a  gelati- 
nous substance  called  synovia,  which  here  performs  a  ser- 
vice exactlylike  thatof  oil  amongthe  wheels  of  machinery. 

But  as  the  bones  must  be  more  or  less  restricted  in  their 
range  of  motion,  there  must  be  some  peculiar  means  by 

What  is  said  of  the  changes  of  hones  from  the  young  to  the  adult  state? 
What  is  said  of  the  adaptation  of  the  bones  in  forming  joints  ?  What  is  ar- 
ticulation ?  What  is  cartilage  ?  What  is  synovia  ? 


HUMAN    ANATOMY.  326 

which  that  end  is  attained  :  some  being  prevented  from 
changing  their  relative  situations  by  certain  modes  of 
articulation  ;  others,  where  only  a  slight  motion  is  re- 
quired, being  united  by  cartilage  ;  and  others,  where 
extensive  and  varied  motions  are  wanted,  as  in  the  shoul- 
der and  hip  joints,  being  connected  by  ligaments,  mem- 
branes, and  muscles. 

Ligaments. — Ligaments  are  white,  fibrous,  tough, 
glistening,  and  flexible  expansions,  or  cords,  which  occur 
almost  every  where  in  the  system,  and,  therefore,  assum- 
ing a  great  variety  of  forms  and  sizes.  They  are,  for  the 
most  part,  exterior  to  the  joints,  and  by  their  great 
strength  and  small  elasticity,  preserve  the  relative  posi- 
tion or  connection  of  the  bones  in  their  various  move- 
ments. 

Membranes. — Membranes  are  thin,  whitish  webs,  or 
textures,  more  flexible  and  elastic  than  ligaments,  and, 
generally,  of  a  more  delicate  fabric.  They  not  only  as- 
sist in  the  security  and  motion  of  the  joints,  but  fulfill  a 
variety  of  other  offices.  They  surround,  or  line  the  cav- 
ities and  the  organs  of  the  system,  and  contribute  to  unite 
and  combine  the  whole  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  interpose 
and  preserve  a  distinction  between  separate  parts,  thus 
enabling  them  to  act  independently  of  each  other.  They 
vary  in  strength,  texture,  and  color,  and  thus  different 
terms  are  applied  to  them  in  different  parts  of  the  body : 
two  within  the  skull  are  called  maters ;  as,  pia  and  dura 
mater :  those  which  envelop  muscular  fibres  are  called 
aponeurosis ;  that  which  covers  the  lungs,  and  lines  the 
cavity  of  the  chest,  is  termed  the  pleura;  that  which 
lines  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  and  its  included  viscera, 
is  called  the  peritoneum ;  those  which  inclose  the  artic- 
ulated surfaces  are  termed  capsules ;  while  those  cover- 
ing the  bones  are  the  periosteum.  In  some  other  cases 
the  membranes  are  named  tunics,  or  coats. 

By  what  different  means  are  the  hones  united  ?  What  are  ligaments  ? 
What  the  uses  of  ligaments  ?  What  are  membranes  ?  Where  are  membranes 
found  ?  What  are  those  within  the  brain  called  ?  What  is  an  aponeurosis  ? 
What  is  the  periosteum  ?  What  is  the  peritoneum  ? 

28 


326  APPENDIX. 

Flesh. — The  remaining  substance  concerned  in  the 
connection  of  the  bones  is  the  flesh,  or  muscular  fibres. 
It  is  by  this  means  that  the  upper,  as  well  as  the  lower 
extremities,  are  chiefly  connected  with  the  trunk,  or 
body;  these  parts  requiring  great  strength,  as  well  as 
general  motion,  it  being  by  means  of  the  muscles  that 
all  the  motions  of  the  system  are  carried  on. 

Tendons. — Many  of  the  muscles  contain,  besides  flesh, 
a  substance  analogous  to  ligament,  through  the  medium 
of  which  they  are  attached  to  the  bones,  which  are  termed 
tendons.  In  most  instances  the  muscles  and  tendons 
gradually  replace  each  other,  the  thick  part,  being  red 
flesh,  gradually  terminating  in  cords  of  shining  white  ten- 
don, the  extremity  of  which  is  attached  to  a  movable 
bone.  The  tendon  of  the  heel,  and  the  muscle  of  the 
calf  of  the  leg,  is  a  good  example. 

Muscles  and  tendons  are  composed  of  bundles  of  fibres, 
which  may  be  unraveled  to  extreme  minuteness,  when 
what  appears  to  the  naked  eye  as  a  single  fibre,  when 
placed  under  the  microscope  appears  like  a  chain  of  infi- 
nitely small  globular  particles. 

Nerves. — But  though  the  muscles  are  the  immediate 
organs  of  motion,  they  are  dependent  for  their  powers  of 
contraction  and  relaxation  upon  the  nerves,  with  which 
they  are  every  where  numerously  supplied.  The  nerves, 
when  examined  by  themselves,  appear  in  the  form  of  white 
inelastic  cords,  or  threads  ;  and,  when  traced  to  their  ori- 
gin, are  found  to  issue  from  the  brain,  or  spinal  marrow, 
the  latter  being  considered  an  elongation  or  continuation 
to  the  former  through  the  spinal  canal.  The  trunks  of 
the  nerves  are  subdivided  into  branches,  and  these,  again, 
into  filaments  not  larger  than  hairs,  which  enter  into  the 
muscles  and  all  other  parts  having  sensation,  being,  as  it 
were,  lost  in  their  substance  ;  that  is,  they  become  too 
minute  for  detection  by  the  senses,  though,  in  every  case 


By  what  means  are  the  limbs  chiefly  connected  to  the  trunk?  What  are 
the  tendons  ?  Where  are  the  tendons  attached  ?  What  are  muscles  and 
tendons  composed  of?  By  what  power  do  the  muscles  act?  From  what 
parts  do  the  nerves  issue  ?  What  are  the  nerves  the  organs  of? 


OF    THE    BLOOD    AND    ITS    VESSELS.  327 

where  there  is  sensation  or  feeling,  nerves  are  supposed 
to  be  present.  The  functions  of  the  nerves,  producing 
muscular  motion,  are  sometimes  independent  of  the  will, 
as  in  the  beating  of  the  heart,  and  in  others  obedient 
thereto,  as  in  the  action  of  the  locomotive  muscles,  ex- 
ercised in  walking,  or  in  the  use  of  the  arms  and  hands. 
That  the  action  of  the  muscles,  as  well  .as  every  spe- 
cies of  sensation,  depends  on  the  nerves,  is  proved  by 
the  fact  that  all  such  phenomena  cease,  when  the  nerve 
supplying  any  particular  part  is  separated.  Thus,  when 
the  nerve  which  passes  to  the  arm  is  cut,  that  member 
no  longer  obeys  the  will ;  and  the  sight  is  instantly 
destroyed  if  the  optic  nerve  is  severed  ;  and  so  of  every 
other  portion  of  the  system.  The  nervous  trunks,  which 
issue  in  pairs  from  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  amount  to 
about  40  in  number;  and  in  tracing  them  and  their 
branches,  they  are  found  in  certain  parts  of  the  system 
to  swell  into  knots  called  ganglia,  a  figure  and  descrip- 
tion of  which  will  be  seen  at  page  158. 

OF  THE  BLOOD  AND  ITS  VESSELS. 

Having  thus  shown  how  the  bones  are  connected  and 
put  into  motion,  and  from  what  source  their  motion  is 
derived,  we- will  next  point  out  the  means  by  which  the 
muscles,  as  well  as  other  parts  of  the  living  system, 
grow,  and  are  nourished. 

The  circulation  of  the  blood,  together  with  the  extra- 
ordinary effects  which  respiration  has  on  that  fluid,  have 
already  been  described  severally  at  pages  127  and  163. 
Without  this  exposure  to  the  air  in  the  lungs,  the  blood 
is  unfit  for  the  purposes  of  life,  nor  can  any  animal  exist 
more  than  a  few  minutes  without  it,  strangulation  being 
the  speedy  consequence.  The  heart  is  therefore  so  con- 
structed as  to  propel  the  blood  which  it  receives  through" 
the  substance  of  the  lungs  by  means  of  the  arteries, 
which  are  there  intermixed  with  the  air-vessels,  and  thus 
the  blood  undergoes,  by  the  influence  of  the  air  we  take 


Is  muscular  motion  always  dependent  on  the  will  ?  How  is  it  proved  that 
sensation  depends  on  the  nerves  ?  How  many  pairs  of  nerves  are  there  ? 
What  are  ganglia? 


APPENDIX. 

in  from  the  atmosphere  at  every  breath,  that  mysterious 
change  which  prepares  it  to  nourish  every  part  of  the 
body. 

The  arteries,  which  carry  the  blood  from  the  heart  to 
all  parts  of  the  system,  are  divided  into  an  infinite  number 
of  ramifications ;  and  the  branches  from  the  same  trunk  are 
frequently  found  to  unite  in  their  course,  so  that  when  by 
any  accident  some  are  cut  off  or  obstructed,  the  circula- 
tion is  still  carried  on  by  the  others  :  a  wise  provision  for 
a  most  important  purpose. 

As  we  have  already  explained  under  the  article  "  Cir- 
culation" the  blood  is  carried  to  every  part  of  the  body 
by  the  arteries,  and  again  returned  to  the  heart  by  the 
veins,  it  being  this  continued  circulation  by  which  the 
whole  system  is  nourished  and  renovated,  by  the  action 
of  these  vessels. 

Absorbents. — These  constitute  a  distinct  system  of 
vessels,  which  take  up  or  carry  away  such  portions  of 
the  blood  as  are  either  not  wanted  for  nourishment,  or  as 
are  useless,  and  to  be  cast  out  of  the  system  in  a  state  of 
solution.  These  vessels  are  furnished  with  valves,  like 
the  veins,  and  terminate  in  a  common  trunk  called  the 
thoracic  duct,  wrhich  pours  its  contents  into  a  vein  just 
before  it  terminates  in  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart. 
This  vein  is  called  the  subclavian,  and  the  course  of  the 
chyle  through  this  duct  has  already  been  explained  at 
§  298,  Fig.  74. 

Renovation  and  Decay. — From  the  above  observations, 
it  may  be  inferred  that  a  system  of  deposition  and  removal 
is  continually  going  on  within  the  living  system ;  that 
the  ramifications  of  the  arterial  system  are  constantly 
renovating  the  different  organs,  while  the  absorbents  are 
as  continually  removing  the  worn-out  materials  thus  de- 
posited. 

It  would  appear,  also,  that  the  absorbent  system,  strictly 

What  vessels  carry  the  blood  to  all  parts  of  the  body  ?  What  vessels  re- 
turn the  blood  to  the  heart?  What  are  the  absorbents?  Where  does  the 
thoracic  duct  discharge  its  contents?  \Vh:tt  is  said  of  the  renovation  and 
decay  of  the  living  system  ? 


RENOVATION    AND   DECAY,  329 

so  called,  performs  the  double  part  of  absorption  and  ex- 
cretion, as  occasion  requires.  Thus,  the  vessels  of  the 
skin  are  commonly  considered  as  performing  the  function 
of  excretion,  constantly  emitting  more  or  less  fluid  in  the 
form  of  perspiration,  and  this  appears  to  be  the  result  of 
their  ordinary  action.  "  But  it  is  a  fact  well  established  by 
more  recent  observations,  that  when  the  amount  of  fluid 
in  the  body  has,  by  disease  or  otherwise,  been  greatly 
reduced,  absorption  of  water  through  the  skin  may  take 
place  to  a  considerable  amount.  Thus,  there  is  a  case 
recorded  by  Dr.  Currie  of  a  patient  who  had  such  an  ob- 
struction between  the  mouth  and  the  stomach,  that  no  nutri- 
ment, either  solid  or  fluid,  could  be  conveyed  to  the  organs 
of  digestion ;  and,  yet,  this  person  was  supported  for  many 
weeks  by  immersing  the  body  every  day  in  a  bath  of 
milk  and  water.  During  this  time  his  weight  was  not 
diminished,  and  it  was  calculated  by  Dr  C.  that  from 
one  to  two  pints  of  fluid  must  have  been  daily  absorbed 
by  the  skin.  The  patient's  thirst,  which  had  been  ex- 
ceedingly painful  previously  to  the  adoption  of  this  plan, 
was  removed  by  the  bath,  in  which  he  experienced  the 
most  refreshing  sensations.  Another  proof  that  the  skin 
absorbs  water  copiously  is,  that  it  is  well  known  that 
shipwrecked  sailors,  and  others,  who  are  suffering  from 
thirst,  owing  to  the  want  of  fresh  water,  find  it  greatly 
alleviated,  or  altogether  relieved,  by  dipping  their  clothes 
into  the  sea,  and  putting  them  on  while  still  wet.  Even 
the  moisture  ordinarily  contained  in  the  atmosphere  may 
be  so  rapidly  absorbed  as  seriously  to  increase  the  weight 
of  the  body ;  and  it  would  seem  that  a  small  quantity  of 
fluid  taken  into  the  stomach,  in  certain  conditions  of  the 
system,  has  the  powder  of  exciting  this  action  of  the  skin. 
Thus,  Dr.  Watson,  in  his  Chemical  Essays,  mentions  a 
case  where  a  lad  at  Newmarket,  having  been  almost 
starved,  in  order  to  reduce  his  weight  to  the  proper  stand- 
ard for  a  riding  match,  was  found  to  have  increased 
nearly  thirty  ounces  within  an  hour,  apparently  by  having 
drank  a  glass  of  wine,  for  he  had  taken  nothing  else  ;  and 

What  is  said  of  the  absorbing  powers  of  the  skin  ?  What  was  Dr.  Cur- 
rie's  case  illustrating  the  absorbent  powers  of  the  skin  ?  What  proof  is  there 
that  the  skin  absorbs  moisture  ? 

28* 


330  APPENDIX. 

Sir.  G.  Hill  witnessed  a  parallel  case,  where  a  much 
greater  increase  of  the  weight  of  the  body  appeared  to 
result  from  the  drinking  of  a  single  cup  of  tea. 

Mastication  and  Digestion. — These  have  already  been 
treated  of  at  pages  106  and  112,  and  we  shall  proceed  to 
describe  more  distinctly  than  has  been  done  in  the  forego- 
ing treatise,  the  Anatomical  structure  of  the  human  frame. 

The  human  body,  it  is  known  to  all,  is  composed  of 
solids  and  fluids,  united  in  different  proportions.  The 
solids  give  form  and  consistence  to  the  different  parts, 
and  are  composed  of  bones,  ligaments,  muscles,  ten- 
dons, nerves,  and  vessels  containing  various  fluids.  The 
fluids  form  the  largest  proportion  of  the  body,  and  con- 
sist of  blood,  chyme,  chyle,  and  all  the  secreted  liquids, 
as  sweat,  saliva,  bile,  tears,  &c.  These  are  all  con- 
tained in  vessels,  cells,  cavities  or  reservoirs. 

It  has  been  found,  contrary  to  expectation,  that  when 
the  fluids  of  the  human  body  are  separated  from  the  sol- 
ids, their  proportions  are  as  eight  to  ten.  Thus,  a  body 
weighing  100  Ibs.  contains  only  20  Ibs.  of  solid  matter, 
the  remaining  80  being  composed  of  various  fluids.  This 
has  been  ascertained  by  an  examination  of  human  bodies 
found  in  a  dried  state  in  the  sands  of  Arabia,  where  the 
extreme  aridity  of  the  atmosphere  prevents  decomposi- 
tion, and  acts  on  dead  animal  matters  only  by  the  ab- 
sorption of  their  fluid  particles  ;  thus  leaving  the  solid 
parts  in  a  perfect,  though  in  greatly  diminished  propor- 
tions, in  appearance. 

Division  of  the  Subject. — Authors  have  divided  the 
anatomy  of  the  solids  into  several  branches,  and  named 
them  according  to  the  parts  of  which  they  treat.  These 
are, 

1.  Osteology.     A  description  of  the  bones. 

2.  Syndesmology.     A  description  of  the  ligaments. 

3.  Myology.     A  description  of  the  muscles. 


What  are  the  solids  of  the  human  frame  '.  Which  form  the  largest  portions 
of  the  body,  the  .solids  or  fluids  ?  How  is  it  known  that  the  fluids  form  the 
largest  portions  ?  What  are  the  proportions  between  the  solids  and  fluids  ? 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    SYSTEM.  331 

4.  Splanchnology.     A  description  of  the  viscera. 

5.  Adenology.     A  description  of  the  glands. 

6.  Angiology.     A  description  of  the  vessels. 

7.  Neurology.     A  description  of  the  nerves. 

8.  Dermology.     A  description  of  the  skin. 

Explanations. — The  solid  parts  of  the  living  system 
are  named  organs,  as  the  instruments  by  which  the  va- 
rious functions  are  performed.  Thus,  the  muscles  are 
the  organs  of  locomotion,  the  eyes  the  organs  of  sight, 
and  the  heart  and  arteries  those  of  the  circulation. 

These  solid  parts  of  our  fabric,  when  minutely  exam- 
ined, are  found  to  consist  ultimately  of  layers  of  minute 
fibres,  or  filaments,  varied  in  appearance  and  texture,  ac- 
cording to  the  use  and  offices  of  the  part  which  they 
compose. 

Tissues,  or  Textures. — Tissue  is  a  web-like  struc- 
ture, which  constitutes  the  chief  elementary  parts  of  ani- 
mal bodies.  Nearly  all  the  soft  parts  of  animals  are 
made  up  of  such  tissues,  or  textures,  which  are  either 
spread  out  into  membranes,  or  collected  into  cords,  or 
hollowed  out  into  canals  ;  and  by  their  diversity  of  com- 
bination, figure,  and  color,  they  originate  all  the  modifi- 
cations of  structure  and  functions  which  the  different  or- 
gans possess. 

According  to  Mr.  Paxton,  author  of  a  Treatise  on  Hu- 
man Anatomy,  the  systems  of  texture  may  be  placed  in 
the  following  order  : 

1 .  The  Bony  System. 

2.  The  Cartilaginous  System. 

3.  The  Fibrous  System. 

4.  The  Muscular  System. 

5.  The  Vascular  System. 

6.  The  Nervous  System. 

7.  The  Mucous  System. 

8.  The  Serous  System. 

What  are  the  names  of  the  divisions  of  the  anatomy  of  the  solids,  and  what 
do  they  signify  ?  What  is  meant  by  the  organs  of  the  body  ?  What  are  tis- 
sues, or  textures,  of  animal  bodies  ? 


332  APPENDIX. 

9.  The  Glandular  System 

10.  The  Adipose  System. 

11.  The  Cellular  System. 

12.  The  Dermoid  System 

In  a  treatise  so  entirely  elementary  as  this  is  intended 
to  be,  a  distinct  account  of  each  of  these  systems  can 
not  be  expected,  nor  is  this  necessary  for  the  design  of 
this  work,  as  it  would  comprehend  a  detailed  system  of 
the  anatomy  of  the  human  body.  A  short  explanation 
of  what  some  few  of  these  systems  comprehend,  will  in- 
dicate to  the  pupil  what  is  intended  by  the  others,  and  so 
of  the  whole. 

The  bony  system  of  texture  refers  only  to  the  interior, 
or  cellular  portions  of  the  bones,  and  not  to  their  exter- 
nal and  solid  parts,  which  do  not  consist  of  tissues. 

The  cartilaginous  system  refers  to  that  white,  semi- 
hard  substance  called  gristle,  which  is  attached  to  the 
bones,  and  must  be  distinguished  from  the  ligaments  and 
tendons,  the  latter  of  which  are  attached  to  the  muscles, 
while  the  former  act  as  binders  of  the  tendons. 

The  vascular  system  includes  the  veins  and  arteries, 
as  well  as  the  vessels  which  transmit  colorless  fluids,  as 
the  chyle  and  tears. 

The  dermoid  system  refers  to  the  skin. 

The  adipose  system  to  the  fat,  &c. 

THE  BONES,  OR  OSSEOUS  SYSTEM. 

Osteology  is  a  discourse,  or  treatise,  on  the  bones. 

Anatomy,  which  includes  an  examination  of  all  the  in- 
struments of  life,  signifies  to  dissect,  or  cut  up.  Our 
present  subject,  therefore,  only  refers  to  a  description  of 
the  frame-work,  or  hard  parts  of  the  animal  system. 

Skeleton. — A  complete  assemblage  of  the  dry  bones 
of  an  animal  is  called  a  skeleton,  which  term  means  "to 

— , _ . 

What  are  the  systems  of  texture  enumerated  ?  To  what  does  the  bony 
texture  refer?  To  what  does  the  cartilaginous  texture  refer?  To  what  does 
the  vascular  system  refer  ?  What  is  the  dermoid  texture  ?  What  the  adi- 
pose texture  ? 


THE    BONES,    OR    OSSEOUS    SYSTEM.  333 

dry  up."  When  the  bones  are  held  together  by  their 
own  ligaments,  it  is  called  a  natural  skeleton;  when 
joined  by  wires,  it  is  an  artificial  skeleton. 

Ossification. — The  formation  of  bone,  which  this  term 
signifies,  consists  in  the  deposition  of  the  phosphate  of 
lime  on  the  soft  solids  of  animal  bodies,  by  a  natural 
process. 

The  bones  undergo  many  changes  before  they  reach 
their  entire  hardness  and  strength.  In  the  young  animal 
they  are  rio  harder  than  cartilage,  as  may  be  observed  in 
the  head  of  the  infant.  They  gradually  increase  in  con- 
sistence and  strength  until  about  the  twentieth  year, 
when  the  bones  of  our  species  are  supposed  to  become 
perfect  for  all  the  purposes  for  which  they  were  design- 
ed. At  this  period  of  life  the  bones  are  of  full  size,  and 
of  sufficient  hardness  to  sustain  the  action  of  all  the  mus- 
cles. Besides  the  phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime,  they 
contain  large  quantities  of  animal  matter,  and  hence  they 
are  not  readily  fractured.  But  in  extreme  age  the  earthy 
matter  predominates,  and  the  bones  become  brittle  by  the 
loss  of  their  animal  matter,  and  from  this  cause  it  is  that 
fractures  are  occasioned  by  slight  accidents  in  old  per- 
sons. 

Eminences  and  Depressions  of  the  Bones. — Many  of 
the  bones  have  eminences  or  projections,  and  some  of 
them  furrows,  or  depressions,  which  are  known  to  anat- 
omists by  certain  names,  and  which,  therefore,  it  is  nec- 
essary for  the  student  to  know. 

Eminences  are  called  heads  when  they  are  convex,  or 
roundish,  and  smooth  on  the  surface,  as  the  head  of  the 
femur,  or  thigh  bone,  and  the  humerus,  or  arm  bone. 
Condyle,  which  means  a  knuckle,  is  applied  to  the  pro- 
jections on  the  lower  ends  of  the  femur  and  humerus. 
Tubercles,  or  tuberosities,  are  small  prominences,  as 
those  near  the  heads  of  the  os  humeri.  Spine,  or  spi- 
nous  processes,  literally  thorn-like,  are  the  projections 

At  what  age  do  the  bones  of  man  become  perfect  ?  What  is  the  composi- 
tion of  the  bones  ?  Why  are  the  bones  of  old  persons  easily  broken  ?  What 
are  the  condyles  of  the  bones  ?  What  are  tubercles  ?  What  are  spines  ? 


334  APPENDIX.    - 

on  the  vertebrae,  or  back-bone.  Cristce,  or  crests,  are 
long,  sharp  elevations,  as  the  crista  galli  of  the  ethmoid, 
one  of  the  bones  of  the  head.  Trochanter,  whicH  means 
to  run  or  roll,  is  applied  to  two  eminences  situated  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  thigh  bone.  They  are  so  named 
because  to  these  parts  are  attached  the  large  muscles  by 
the  action  of  which  the  limb  is  turned  or  moved. 

Depressions. — Some  of  the  depressions  in  the  bones 
are  of  considerable  depth,  while  others  are  quite  superfi- 
cial. That  which  receives  the  head  of  the  thigh  bone  is 
the  deepest,  and  is  called  the  cotyloid  cavity.  Those  in 
which  the  teeth  are  fixed  are  called  alveoli,  or  sockets. 
Those  which  are  more  shallow  are  called  glenoid,  as  the 
cavity  in  the  scapula,  or  shoulder-blade,  which  receives 
the  head  of  the  humerus. 


PERIOSTEUM. 

Periosteum  signifies  around  the  bone,  and  is  applied 
to  the  membrane  which  surrounds  all  the  bones  in  every 
part  of  the  skeleton,  except  when  they  are  tipped  with 
cartilage,  and  the  teeth,  which  are  protected  by  enamel. 

In  infancy  this  covering  is  but  slightly  united  to  the 
bones,  and  is  removed  from  them  with  facility  ;  but  in 
the  adult  it  adheres  firmly,  and  in  old  age  can  not  be  de- 
tached. 

In  the  healthy  state,  the  periosteum,  like  the  bones,  is 
without  sensibility  ;  but  when  diseased,  it  becomes  ex- 
ceedingly painful.  This  is  a  proof  that  it  is  furnished 
with  nerves,  though  they  are  too  minute  to  be  demonstra- 
ted to  the  sight. 

It  is  this  membrane  which  gives  vitality  to  the  bones, 
for  when  separated  from  them,  their  surfaces  perish,  and 
exfoliate.  To  it  are  also  attached  the  tendons,  ligaments, 
and  muscles. 


What  are  the  crista  ?  What  are  the  trochanters  ?  What  is  the  cotyloid 
cavity  ?  What  are  glenoid  cavities  ?  What  is  the  meaning  of  periosteum  ? 
What  the  uses  of  this  membrane  ? 


THE    BONES,    OR    OSSEOUS    SYSTEM.  335 


NUMBER  OF  BONES  IN  THE  SKELETON. 

The  human  skeleton  consists  of  about  252  bones,  the 
number  differing  three  or  four  in  different  persons.  This 
is  in  consequence  of  the  variable  number  of  the  sesa- 
moid  bones,  which  are  small  seed-like  accumulations 
found  about  the  joints  of  the  great  toe  and  thumb. 

The  following  list,  from  Paxton,  will  show  the-  names 
and  number  of  the  bones  in  the  head,  trunk,  and  extrem- 
ities. It  must  be  remembered  that  there  are  two  corre- 
sponding sides  to  the  skeleton,  and  hence  one  half  of 
the  numbers  are  on  each  side,  except  about  the  head, 
where  only  single  ones  occur. 

Hones  of  the  Head,  55  in  Number. 

English.  Latin. 

Frontal  bone,  Os  frontis,  1 

Parietal  bones,  Ossa  parietala,  2 

Occipital,  Os  occipitis,  1 

Temporal,  Ossa  temporum,  2 

Sphenoidal,  Os  sphenoides,  1 

Ethmoid,  Os  ethmoides,  1 

Nasal,  Ossa  nasi,  2 

Malar,  Ossa  malarum,  2 

Upper  jaw,  Ossa  maxillare  superius,          2 

Palate  bones,  Ossa  palatina,  2 

Inferior  turbinated,     Ossa  turbinata,  2 

Corner,  partition  of  the  nose,  1 

Lower  jaw,  Os  maxillare  inferius,  1 

Teeth,  Dentes,  32 

Tongue  bone,  Os  hyoides.  1 

Bones  of  the  Ear,  8  in  Number. 


Anvil, 

Ossa  incudes, 

2 

Hammer, 

Ossa  mallei, 

2 

Stirrup, 

Ossa  stapedes, 

2 

Orbed  bones, 

Ossa  orbicularia. 

2 

What  is  the  number  of  bones  in  the  human  skeleton  ?    What  is  the  number 
of  bones  in  the  head  ?     What  number  in  the  ear  ? 


336  APPENDIX. 


Bones  of  the  Trunk,  57  in  Number. 

Back  bone,                 Vertebrae,  24 

Ribs,                           Costae,  24 

Breast  bone,               Sternum,  1 

Hip  bones,                 Ossa  innominata,  2 

Rump  bone,               Os  sacrum,  1 

Coccygeal  bones,      Ossa  coccygis.  4 

Bones  of  the  Upper  Extremities,  68  in  Number. 


Collar  bones, 
Shoulder  bones, 
Arm  bones, 
Fore-arm  bones, 
Wrist  bones, 
Hand  bones, 
Finger  bones, 
Thumb  bones, 
Sesamoid  bones, 

Claviculae, 
Scapulae, 
Ossa  humeri, 
Radii  et  ulnae, 
Ossa  carpi, 
Ossa  metacarpi, 
Phalanges  digitorum 
Ossa  pollicis, 
Ossa  sesamoidea. 

2 
2 

2 
4 
16 

8 
manus,  24 
6 
4 

Bones  of  the  Lower  Extremities,  64  in  Number. 

Thigh  bones,  Ossa  femoris,  2 

Knee-pans,  Patellae,  2 

Shin  bones,  Tibiae,  2 

Leg  bones,  Fibulae,  2 

Tarsal  bones,  Ossa  tarsi,  14 

Metatarsal  bones,  Ossa  metatarsi,  10 

Toe  bones,  Phalanges  digitorum  pedis,  28 

Sesamoid  bones,  Ossa  sesamoidea.  4 

252 

As  our  limits  will  not  allow  a  particular  description  of 
each  of  these  bones,  it  may  be  remarked  that,  with  the 
exception  of  those  of  the  head,  nearly  every  reader  will 
know  by  their  names  their  places  in  the  skeleton ;  and 

What  is  the  number  of  bones  in  the  trunk  ?      What  number  in  the  upper 
apj  lower  extremities  ?      What  is  the  whole  number  in  the  human  skeleton  ? 


SUTURES.  337 

with  respect  to  the  interior  ones  of  the  skull,  their  forms 
and  situations  are  expected  to  be  known  only  to  profess- 
ed anatomists. 

In  describing  the  human  frame,  it  is  understood  that 
the  position  is  erect,  hence  by  superior  and  inferior  is 
meant  the  higher  and  lower  portions  of  that  position. 
By  anterior  and  posterior  is  denoted  the  front  and  hinder 
portions  of  the  body,  and  by  lateral,  the  side. 


HUMAN  SKELETON. 

Having  introduced  the  subject  of  human  anatomy,  by 
such  explanations  and  remarks  as  the  student  would  seem 
to  require,  in  order  to  understand  what  follows,  we  shall 
introduce  on  the  succeeding  page  a  front  view  of  the  skel- 
eton, with  su  ;h  references  as  to  make  the  names  and  sit- 
uations of  its  principal  bones  readily  seen. 

SUTURES. 

Suture,  from  the  Latin  suo,  to  sew,  a  seam.  It  is 
applied  to  the  junction  of  the  bones  of  the  cranium,  by 
serrated  lines  like  the  stitches  of  a  seam.  They  origin- 
ate thus  :  The  radiated  fibres  of  the  bones  in  their  growth 
approach  each  other,  and  the  fibres  of  the  one,  entering 
the  intervals  of  the  fibres  of  the  other,  form  the  serrated 
lines  of  union  in  question. 

Fig.  1. 


338 


BONES. 


339 


Fig.  2.  Represents  a  Front  View  of  the  male  Skeleton. 

HEAD  AND  NECK.  7i,  The  ulna. 

a,  The  frontal  bone.  0,   The  radius. 

b,  The  parietal  bone. 

c,  Orbit  of  the  eye. 

d,  The  temporal  bone. 

e,  The  lower  jaw. 

f,  Vertebrae  of  the  neck. 

TRUNK. 

g,  The  left  clavicle,  or  col- 

lar bone. 
h,   The    right    scapula,    or 

shoulder-blade. 
k,   The  lumbar  vertebrae. 
/,    The   left   ilium,   or  hip 

bone. 
m,  The  right  ilium. 

UPPER    EXTREMITY. 

t,    The    humerus,    or    arm 
bone. 

The  sternum,  or  breast  bone,  on  which  the  ribs  meet, 
requires  no  reference. 

Fig.  1  represents  the  principal  sutures  seen  from 
above.  The  coronal  suture  a,  a,  passes  in  nearly  a  trans- 
verse line  across  the  front  part  of  the  skull,  and  joins  the 
frontal  bone  a,  a,  with  the  parietal  bones. 

The  sagittal  suture,  or  arrow-shaped,  b,  so  named  from 
ks  being  straight  like  an  arrow,  extends  from  the  middle 
of  the  superior  margin  of  the  frontal,  to  the  angle  of  the 
occipital  bone.  It  joins  the  two  parietal,  or  wall  bones, 
which  form  the  sides  of  the  skull,  along  the  cranium. 

The  lambdoidal -suture,  c,  c,  so  named  from  its  resem- 
blance to  the  Greek  letter  lambda,  commences  at  the  ter- 
mination of  the  sagittal  suture,  and  extends  on  each  side 


p,  The  wrist,  or  carpus. 
q,  The  metacarpus,  or  hand. 
r,   The   phalanges,  or  fin- 
gers. 


LOWER    EXTREMITY. 

5,  The  femur,  or  thigh  bone. 
t,  The  patella,  or  knee-pan. 
u,  The  tibia,  or  large  bone 

of  the  leg. 
v,   The  fibula,  or  small  bone 

of  the  leg. 

w,  The  tarsus,  or  instep. 
x,  The  metatarsus,  or  bones 

of  the  foot. 
y,  The    phalanges    of    the 

toes 


What  is  the  meaning  of  sutures  ? 
bones  do  the  coronal  suture  join  ? 
What  hones  do  the  sagittal  suture  join  ? 
suture  join  ?     What  are  theossa  rriquetra 


How  do  the  sutures  originate  ?     What 
Why  is  the  sagittal  suture  so  called  ? 
'     What  bones  does  the  lambdoidal 
What  the  squamous  suture  ? 


340 


APPENDIX. 


Fig.  3. 


d- 


down  to  the  base  of  the  cranium.  It  joins  the  occipital, 
to  the  parietal  bones,  above,  and  the  temporal  bones 
below.  There  are  two  little  bones  marked  d,  d,  called 
ossa  triquetra,  from  their  triangular  shapes.  They  are 
familiarly  known  to  anatomists  by  the  name  of  Ossa 
Wormiana,  from  their  being  first  described  by  Olaus 
Wormius. 

The  squamous  sutures  e,  e,  is  so  named  because  the 
temporal  bones  overlap  the  parietal,  like  a  scale.  They 
are  on  each  side  of  the  head  behind  the  ears. 

OS  FEMORIS.    THE  THIGH  BONE. 

There  are  some  parts  of  the  os  femoris  which  cannot 
be  seen,  and  explained  as  this  bone  is  represented  in  the 
skeleton.     We  therefore  give  an  ad- 
ditional  figure  of  it  here,  with  explana- 
tions. 

The  head,  a,  Fig.  3,  forms  the 
greater  part  of  a  sphere.  It  articu- 
lates with  the  hip,  and  is  the  most 
perfect  instance  of  the  ball  and  socket 
joint  in  the  system.  For  additional 
security,  this  joint,  unlike  any  other, 
has  a  short  ligament  attached  in  the 
hollow  b,  and  to  the  bottom  of  the  cup 
in  the  hip  bone.  The  neck,  c,  is  the 
oblique  space  between  the  trochanter 
and  head  of  the  bone.  The  large 
process  d,  is  the  trochanter  major,  and 
e,  the  trochanter  minor.  The  curved 
liney,  extending  from  one  trochanter 
to  the  other,  is  the  linea  quadrata, 
being  the  point  where  the  muscle 
called  the  quadratus  femoris  is  at- 
tached. The  body  of  the  bone  g,  has 
a  long  rough  elevated  line  h,  called 
the  linea  aspera.  The  outer  condyle, 
i,  is  opposite  to  the  inner  condyle,  k. 
The  condyles  have  four  articular  at- 
tachments,  two  of  which  are  marked 
by  u,  o,  where  the  the  tibia  is  attach- 
ed4  The  recess  p,  affords  a  safe  pas- 


OS    INNOMINATA.  341 

sage  of  the  large  vessels  to  the  leg.  There  are  nine- 
teen muscles  attached  to  this  bone,  several  of  which  are 
the  most  powerful  in  the  body. 

OS  INNOMINATA. 

The  os  innominata,  or  nameless  bone,  so  called  on  ac- 
count of  its  irregular  shape,  is  that  to  which  the  thigh 
bones  are  attached.  It  is  composed  of  three  bones,  all 
of  irregular  forms,  and  in  the  adult,  united  into  one. 
These  are  the  ilium,  or  haunch  bone,  the  ischium  or  hip 
bone,  and  the  os  pubis,  or  share  bone.  (See  skeleton.) 

Fig.  4. 


Z- 
BONES  OF  THE  FOOT- 

Fig.  4  represents  the  upper  surface  of  the  bones  of  the 
f<  ot,  which  are  twenty-six  in  number. 

The  astragalus,  where  it  is  articulated  with  the  tibia, 
arises  above  the  other  bones  and  is  marked  f.  The  os 
calcis  or  heel  bone  g.  The  three  cuneiform,  or  wedge- 
shaped  bones,  e.  The  tarsal  bones  forming  the  instep  d. 
The  metatarsal  bones,  five  in  number,  a,  forming  the 
upper  and  arched  part  of  the  foot.  The  phalanges  or 
rows  of  bones  forming  the  toes,  b,  c,  and  i,  are  three  in 
number.  The  whole  number  of  bones  in  the  phalanges 
are  fourteen,  the  great  toe  having  only  two,  while  the 

What  is  the  os  femoris  ?  Describe  the  several  parts  of  this  bone.  What 
is  the  os  innominata,  and  of  what  bones  is  it  composed  ?  How  many  bones 
has  the  foot  ? 

29* 


342  APPENDIX. 

others  have  three  each.  The  bones  of  the  foot,  individ- 
ually resemble  those  of  the  hand,  but  they  are  larger  and 
stronger,  and  being  connected  by  less  flexible  ligaments, 
the  motions  of  the  foot  are  not  so  free  as  those  of  the 
hand. 

LIGAMENTS. 

Ligameritum,  from  the  Latin,  ligo,  to  bind.  The  lig- 
aments consist  of  bundles  of  fibres,  of  greater,  or  less 
thickness,  and  of  a  compact  texture,  which  serve  to  con- 
nect the  articular  surfaces  of  the  bones  and  cartilages ; 
and  in  some  instances  they  protect  the  joints  as  a  capsu- 
lar  envelop. 

The  ligaments,  though  white  and  glistening  in  appear- 
ance, yet  are  well  supplied  with  blood  vessels  from  those 
in  their  immediate  vicinity.  They  possess  but  a  small 
share  of  elasticity,  and  in  their  sound  and  healthy  state, 
are  nearly  or  quite  destitute  of  sensibility,  but  in  a  dis- 
eased state  they  become  exquisitely  painful. 

Ligaments  of  the  CARPUS,  METACARPUS,  and  PHA- 

Fig,  5. 


MUSCULAR  SYSTEM.  343 

LANGES,  or  of  the  wrist,  hand  and  fingers. — Our  limits 
only  allow  examples  of  the  different  connecting  parts  ol 
the  human  frame,  and  we  have  chosen  the  wrist  and 
hand  as  the  most  appropriate  for  our  present  purpose. 
Fig.  5  represents  the  palm  of  the  right  hand,  and  shows 
all  the  principal  ligaments  with  which  it  is  furnished, 
together  with  those  of  the  wrist.  First,  the  three 
upper  bones  of  the  wrist  are  connected  together  by  inter- 
osseous  ligaments  placed  in  the  intervals  between  the 
bones,  which  are  severally  called  the  scaphoid,  the  semi- 
lunar  and  cuneiform.  These  are  shown  by  a,  b,  c,  and  d. 
The  palmar  ligament,  c,  is  divided  into  three  portions,  and 
running  across  the  upper  portion  of  the  hand,  joins  the 
dorsal  ligament  on  the  other  side,  thus  binding  the  bones 
strongly  together. 

Second.  The  superior  transverse  ligaments  d,  d,  ex- 
tend across  the  upper  extremities  of  the  four  metacarpal 
bones  and  are  attached  to  each  of  them.  The  ligament 
g,  connects  the  cuneiform,  with  the  metacarpal  bone  of 
the  little  finger. 

Third.  The  inferior  transverse  ligaments  e,  e,  present 
exactly  the  same  arrangement  as  the  above,  and  connect 
the  inferior  extremities  of  the  four  metacarpal  bones  with 
each  other,  but  not  so  closely  as  at  their  upper  ends,  the 
ligament  here  allowing  a  greater  freedom  of  motion. 

Fourth.  The  first  phalanges,  or  rows  of  finger  bones 
are  attached  to  the  metacarpal  bones  by  loose,  but  strong 
capsular  ligaments,  embracing  the  anterior  part  of  each 
articulation.  The  lateral  ligaments  /,  /,  on  each  side  of 
the  fingers  are  attached  to  slight  depressions  on  the 
lower  ends  of  the  metacarpal  bones,  and  into  the  condyles 
of  the  first  phalanx.  Similar  ligaments  to  these  attach 
the  other  finger  bones  to  each  other,  and  also  those  of 
the  thumb. 

MUSCULAR  SYSTEM. 

Musculus,  in  Greek,  signifies  a  mouse,  probably  ap* 
plied  to  the  flesh  of  animals,  because  it  resembles  a 
flayed  mouse.  We  have  already  seen  that  tke  organs  of 

What  are  the  carpus,  metacarpus,  and  phalanges  ?  Describe  the  ligaments 
of  the  wrist  and  hand 


344  APPENDIX. 

locomotion  are  the  muscles,  or  flesh,  by  which  the  bones 
of  all  animals  are  surrounded. 

We  copy  the  following  definitions  concerning  the  mus- 
cular system  from  Hoblyn's  Dictionary  of  Medicine,  a 
book  which  every  student  in  the  sciences  should  pos- 
sess. 

Muscle,  an  organ  of  motion,  constituting  the  flesh  of 
animals,  and  consisting  of  beaded,  or  cylindrical  fibres, 
which  are  unbranched,  and  are  arranged  parallel  to  each 
other  in  fasciculi.  In  general,  the  name  venter,  or  belly, 
is  given  to  the  middle  portion  of  a  muscle,  while  its  ex- 
tremities are  named  the  head  and  tail,  or  more  commonly 
the  origin  and  insertion.  Hence  the  term  diastricus,  or 
two-bellied,  triceps,  or  three-headed,  &c. 

I.  Properties  of  the  Muscles. 

1.  Contractility,  by  which  their  fibres  return  to  their 
former  dimensions  after  being  extended  ;  and, 

2.  Irritability,  by  which  their  fibres  shorten  on  the 
application  of  a  stimulus. 

II.  Forms  of  the  Muscles. 

1 .  The  muscles,  like  the  bones,  may  be  divided  into 
long,  broad,  and  short;   and  each  of  these  kinds  may 
present  muscles,  either  simple,  or  compound. 

2.  The  simple,  or  those  which  have  their  fibres  arranged 
in  a  similar,  or  parallel  direction.     They  are  in  general 
bulging,  that  is,  their  transverse  outline  is  more  or  less 
inflated  in  the  middle.     The  simple  muscles  are  some- 
times flat,  as  the  sartorius. 

3.  The  radiated,  or  those  which  have  their  fibres  con- 
verging>  like  the  radii  of  a  circle,  to  their  tendinous  in- 
sertion,  as  the  pectoralis,   one   of  the   muscles   of  the 
chest. 

4.  Ventriform,  or  belly-shaped,  which  have  their  cen- 
ter large,  diminishing  toward  their  tendons,  or  extremi- 
ties, as  the  biceps,  or  two-headed  muscles. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  muscle  ?  What  are  the  muscles  ?  What 
are  the  properties  of  the  muscles?  What  are  the  forms  of  the  muscles? 
What  is  a  simple  mnscle  ? 


ACTION    OF    THE    MUSCLES.  345 

5.  The  penniform,  or  pen-shaped,  which  have  their 
fibres  arranged  obliquely  on  each  side  of  the  tendon,  as 
the  rectus  femoris,  a  muscle  of  the  thigh. 

6.  The  semi-penniform,  which   have   their  fibres  ar- 
ranged   on   one    side   of  the   tendon,  as   the   peron&us 
longus,  a  muscle  of  the  outside  of  the  leg. 

7.  The  complicated,  or  compound,  which  have  two,  or 
more  tendons,  as  the  flexors  of  the  fingers  ;  or  a  variety 
in  the  insertion  of  oblique  fibres  into  the  tendons,  as  the 
linguales,  muscles  of  the  tongue. 

III.  Action  of  the  Muscles. 

1 .  The  voluntary,  or  those  which  are  subject  to  the 
will,  as  those  of  the  legs  and  arms,  or  those  of  locomo- 
tion. 

2.  The  involuntary,  or  those  which  act  independently 
of  the  will,  as  those  of  the  heart. 

3.  The  mixed,  or  those  which  act  imperceptibly,  but 
yet  are  subject,  more  or  less,  to  the  control  of  the  will,  as 
the  muscles  of  respiration. 

CONTRACTIBILITY  OF  THE  MUSCLES. — We  have  al- 
ready given  a  definition  of  this  property  of  the  muscles ; 
but,  as  the  agent  of  motion  in  the  animal  system,  and  the 
principal  characteristic  of  these  organs,  some  illustrations 
of  this  property  ought  to  be  stated. 

Contractibility,  constituting  muscular  action,  consists 
in  the  movement  of  the  middle  portions  of  the  fibres  to- 
ward the  two  ends,  where  they  are  fixed.  Thus,  in  the 
amputation  of  a  limb,  as  soon  as  the  muscles  are  divided, 
the  two  portions  contract  toward  their  fixed  ends,  leaving 
a  gap  at  the  point  of  division,  which  is  more  or  less  wide, 
according  to  the  length  and  power  of  the  muscle.  Every 
movable  point  in  the  solid  animal  frame  is  situated  be- 
tween two  muscular  powers,  acting  in  opposition  to  each 
other  ;  thus  are  produced  flexion  and  extension,  elevation 
and  depression,  abduction  and  adduction,  all  by  the  dif- 
ferent ways  in  which  muscular  contraction  is  exerted." 

What  is  a  radiated  muscle  ?  What  a  ventricose  ?  What  a  penniform  ? 
What  a  semi-penniform?  What  a  complicated?  What  are  the  voluntary 
muscles?  What  the  involuntary?  What  the  mixed?  What  does  con- 
tractibility  consist  in  ? 


346  APPENDIX. 

In  whatever  direction  the  limb  is  to  be  moved,  the 
movable  point  must  necessarily  be  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion ;  the  act  of  flexion  requiring  that  it  should  be  first 
extended,  and  so  the  contrary.  But  when  the  flexors 
and  extensors  are  both  in  a  state  of  tension,  they  mu- 
tually counteract  each  other,  and  the  limb  is  fixed. 

Every  muscle,  when  it  contracts,  not  only  acts  upon 
the  bone  to  which  it  is  attached,  but  also  on  the  antago- 
nist, or  opposite  muscle,  so  that  no  one  can  act  inde- 
pendently of  the  other. 

Dr.  Paley,  in  his  Natural  Theology,  gives  the  follow- 
ing familiar  illustration  of  the  action  of  the  muscles  : 
"  Every  muscle  is  provided  with  an  adversary.  They 
act  like  two  sawyers  in  a  pit,  by  an  opposite  pull ;  the 
nature  of  the  muscular  fibre  being  what  it  is,  the  pur- 
poses of  the  animal  could  be  answered  by  no  other. 
And  not  only  the  capacity  for  motion,  but  the  aspect, 
and  symmetry  of  the  body,  is  preserved  by  the  muscles 
being  thus  marshaled  according  to  this  order  :  for  exam- 
ple, the  mouth  is  holden  in  the  middle  of  the  face,  and 
its  angles  kept  in  a  state  of  exact  correspondency,  by 
several  muscles  drawn  against,  and  balancing  each  other. 
In  hemiplegia  [paralysis  of  one  side],  when  the  mus- 
cles of  one  side  of  the  face  are  weakened,  the  muscles 
on  the  other  side  draw  the  mouth  awry." 

Contraction  increases  the  Hardness  of  the  Muscle. — In 
lifting  a  weight  with  the  hand,  the  arm  being  extended, 
the  brachial  muscle,  situated  between  the  elbow  and 
shoulder,  acts  with  much  force,  and  may  be  felt  to  in- 
crease in  size  and  hardness.  This  is  the  case  with  all 
the  muscles,  when  in  a  state  of  action,  and  those  which 
are  most  constantly  employed,  are  increased  in  size  and 
firmness  in  consequence  of  such  continued  action. 
Thus,  the  muscles  of  the  right  arms  of  blacksmiths  are 
always  larger,  and  possess  greater  strength  and  density 
than  those  of  other  men,  in  consequence  of  the  continual 
employment  of  this  limb  in  their  business. 

How  is  muscular  contractihility  shown  by  amputation  ?  What  is  said  of 
antagonist  muscles  ?  What  is  the  effect  when  antagonist  muscles  contract 
at  the  same  time?  What  is  Dr.  Paley's  illustration  of  the  action  of  the 
muscles  ? 


MUSCLES    OF    THE    HUMAN    BODY.  347 

Nervous  Influence. — The  contractility,  as  well  as  the 
irritability,  of  the  muscles,  depend  on  the  nervous  influ- 
ence. Thus,  if  the  brain  is  compressed,  so  that  the  will 
is  destroyed,  all  action  in  the  voluntary  muscles  ceases. 
The  involuntary  muscles,  as  those  of  the  heart,  and  res- 
piration, may  continue  for  a  time,  under  such  circum- 
stances, but  the  person  lies  as  if  in  the  arms  of  death, 
so  far  as  the  movement  of  the  limbs  is  concerned ;  and 
if  this  condition  continues,  and  the  nervous  power,  which 
depends  on  the  action  of  the  brain,  is  obstructed  for  a 
certain  time,  the  heart  ceases  to  act,  and  the  respiration 
slops.  Of  course,  if  this  state  be  continued  for  more 
than  a  few  minutes,  death  must  be  the  consequence  ; 
but  if  the  pressure  from  the  brain  be  removed  within  a 
certain  period,  all  the  muscles  of  the  system  regain  their 
wonted  activity,  and  the  person,  as  it  were,  comes  to  life, 
in  consequence  of  the  renewed  action  of  the  nervous 
power. 

Irritability  is  also  the  consequence  of  nervous  influ- 
ence, but  is  not  dependent  on  the  will.  Hence  some  of 
the  muscles  are  *till  irritable  after  the  animal  ceases  to 
live.  Thus,  the  muscles  of  criminals,  after  execution, 
are  again  set  in  motion  by  a  galvanic  shock,  and  the 
heart  of  a  frog  will  continue  to  beat,  on  touching  it  with 
the  point  of  a  pin,  for  hours  after  it  is  separated  from  the 
animal. 

Having  already  illustrated  the  subject  of  muscular  ac- 
tion at  page  227  and  onward,  we  shall  here  proceed  to 
exhibit,  and  name  the  first  layer  of  muscles  of  the  hu- 
man frame,  or  those  immediately  under  the  skin.  The 
total  number  of  muscles  is  527,  of  which  257  are  in 
pairs,  and  lie  on  opposite  sides  of  the  body. 

Anterior  View  of  the  Muscles  of  the  Human  Body,  Fig.  6. 

Observation. — Some  of.  the  muscles  extend  from  the 
anterior  to  the  posterior  portions  of  the  body,  so  that,  in 
the  two  positions  here  exhibited,  a  few  of  them  have  the 
same  name.  It  is  unnecessary  to  describe  the  situation 
of  each  muscle,  as  this  will  be  seen  on  reference  to  the 
figures. 


346 


k 


MUSCLES  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY. 


MUSCLES    OF    THE    HUMAN    BODY. 


349 


Anterior  View  of  the  Muscles  of  the  Human  Body,  Fig.  6. 


a,  The  occipito-frontalis. 
&,  The  massater. 

c,  The  orbicularis  oris. 

d,  The  depressor  labii  in- 

ferioris. 

e,  The    orbicularis    palpe- 

brarum. 
/,  The  levator  labii  superi- 

oris. 

g,  The  zygomaticus  major. 
h,  The  zygomaticus  minor. 
i,    The  platisma  myoides. 
j,   The  deltoid  muscle. 
k,  The  pectoralis  major. 
I,    The  latissimus  dorsi. 
m,  The  biceps  flexor  cubiti. 
n,   The  triceps  extensor  cu- 
biti. 
p,  The  seratus  major  anti- 

cus. 
q,   The  obliquus  abdominis 

externus. 

r,  Transversalis  abdominis. 
s,  w,  The  pronator  radii  te- 

res. 
•t,  x,    The    supinator   radii 

longus. 


w,  The  tensor  vaginae  femo- 
ris. 

v,  The  extensor  ossis  met- 
acarpi-pollicis  llfcinus. 

y,  The  psoas  magnus. 

z,  The  sartorius,  or  tailor's 
muscle. 

#',  The  extensor  carpi  radi- 
alis  longi  or. 

b',  f,  The  annular  liga- 
ment. 

c',   The  palmaris  brevis. 

d',  The  rectus  femoris. 

e',   The  vastus  externus. 

y,  The  vastus  internus. 

g/,  The  extensor  carpi  radi- 
alis  brevior. 

h^  The  tendon  patella. 

I',  The  gastrocnemius  in- 
ternus. 

i',  The  triceps  extensor 
crucis. 

mf,  The  tibialis  anticus. 


The    flexor 
pedis. 


digitorum 


What  is  the  consequence  of  the  continued  action  of  the  voluntary  muscles  ? 
On  what  does  muscular  action  depend  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  pressure  on 
the  brain  ? 

30 


350 


APPENDIX. 

Fig.  7. 


ft, 


MUSCLES  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY. 


NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 


351 


Posterior  View  of  the  Muscles,  Fig.7. 


a,  The  occipito-frontalis. 

b,  The  massater. 

c,  The  complexus. 

d,  The     sterno-cleido-mas- 

toideus. 

e,  The  attolens  auris. 
fj  The  attrahens  auris. 
g,  The  trapezius. 

h,  The  deltoid  muscle. 
i,    The  infra-spinat.us. 
j,  The  triceps  extensor. 
k,  o,  The  triceps  extensor 

cubiti. 

I,    The  teres  minor. 
m,  The  teres  major. 
n,   Portion  of  the  triceps. 
p,  The  supinator  radii  lon- 

gus. 
q,  The  extensor  carpi  ulna- 

ris. 


r,  s,  The  extensor  commu- 

nis. 

t,    The  olecranon. 
u,  The  pronator  radii  teres. 
v,  The  extensor  communis 

digitorum. 
w,  The  extensor  ossis  met- 

acarpi. 
x,  The  extensor  communis 

digitorum. 

y    The  latissimus  dorsi. 
z,  The  obliquus  externus. 
</,   The  gluteus  medius. 
b',  d',  The  glutens  magnus. 
e',  Tlie  sernitendinosus. 
f,  The  biceps  flexor  cru- 

cis. 
g',  h',   The   gastrocnemius 

externus. 


i',  The  tendo  Achilles. 

NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

Under  the  head  of  Sensorial  Function,  page  156,  we 
have  given  a  general  account  of  the  brain  and  nerves, 
and  have  illustrated  the  several  senses  of  touch,  taste, 
smell,  hearing,  and  seeing,  by  figures  and  explanations. 
At  page  204  is  a  figure  of  the  brain  of  man,  with  ref- 
erences to  its  several  parts,  and  the  necessary  explana- 
tions ;  and  at  page  223,  under  the  head  of  "  Connection 
between  the  Nervous  and  Muscular  Systems,"  it  is  sta- 
ted that  the  muscles  are  furnished  with  two  sets  of 
nerves,  one  set  for  motion,  and  the  other  for  sensation. 
We  here  propose  to  give  more  minute  details  of  the 
Physiology  and  Anatomy  of  the  nervous  system  in  man, 
illustrated  by  a  figure  showing  the  distribution  of  the 
nervous  trunks,  in  the  several  parts  of  the  body. 


352 


NERVOUS  TRUNKS  IN  MAN. 


NERVOUS    TRUNKS    IN    MAN.  353 


General  Arrangement  of  the  Nervous  Trunks  in  Man, 
Fig.  8. 

The  terms  cerebellum,  cerebrum,  and  others  belonging 
to  several  divisions  of  the  organs  of  the  sensorial  func- 
tions, are  explained  in  connection  with  the  figure  of  the 
brain,  page  204.  The  figure  from  a  recent  London 
work,  of  Dr.  Carpenter,  shows  the  general  distribution 
of  the  nerves  on  the  posterior  division  of  the  body,  but 
for  the  present  purpose  it  is  thought  necessary  to  name 
the  principal  trunks  only. 

At  a  are  seen  the  two  hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum  ; 
and  at  6,  those  of  the  cerebellum.  The  facial  nerve, 
the  principal  one  of  the  face,  c,  ramifies  in  every  direc- 
tion, and  receives  different  names,  according  to  the  parts 
it  supplies,  but  does  not  endow  these  parts  with  the  least 
sensibility,  being  nerves  of  motion.  The  spinal  cord,  d, 
proceeds  from  the  brain  down  the  back,  sending  off 
branches  to  all  the  adjoining  parts,  as  represented.  The 
spinal  nerves  are  perfectly  regular  in  their  number  and 
distribution.  Their  number  is  thirty-two  on  each  side, 
making  their  whole  number  sixty-four. 

It  has  already  been  stated,  page  224,  that  every  mus- 
cle is  supplied  with  two  nerves,  one  for  muscular  mo- 
tion, the  other  for  sensation.  Now  late  experiments  have 
proved  that  the  two  sets  arise  from  opposite  parts  of  the 
spinal  cord,  those  for  sensation  arising  from  the  posteri- 
or, and  those  of  motion  from  the  anterior  portions. 

The  brachial  plexus,  e,  which  supplies  the  arm  and 
hand,  is  a  sort  of  nervous  net-work,  originating  from  the 
spinal  cord  by  several  roots.  From  this  plexus  is  de- 
rived the  median  nerve,  f,  the  ulnar  nerve,  g,  and  the 
internal  cutaneous  nerve,  h.  The  sciatic  plexus,  i,  call- 
ed the  great  sciatic  nerve,  being  the  largest  in  the  body, 
divides,  as  it  descends,  into  several  branches,  among 
which  is  the  tibial  nerve,  m,  peroneal,  or  fbular  nerve, 
TZ,  and  the  external  saphenous  nerve,  o. 

The  spinal  cord  gives  off  branches  which  supply  the 
intercostal  muscles,  or  those  between  the  ribs.  These 
are  called  the  intercostal  nerves,  and  are  seen  at  jt  as 
well  as  above  and  below  that  point.  These  supply  the 

30* 


354  APPENDIX. 


muscles  of  respiration.  The  lumbar  plexus,  k,  which 
supplies  the  back,  or  lumbar  region,  passes  to  the  ante- 
rior regions,  and  supplies  the  front  of  the  legs.  The 
popliteal  plexus,  /,  is  a  continuation  of  the  sacral  plexus, 
and  supplies  the  ham  and  parts  adjoining. 

Functions  of  the  Brain  and  Spinal  Cord. — The  cere- 
bral system  of  nerves  conveys  the  impressions  from  ev- 
ery part  of  the  body  to  the  brain,  where  they  are  com- 
municated to  the  mind,  that  is,  the  individual  becomes 
conscious  of  them,  or  feels  them  as  sensations.  And 
by  the  fibres  of  the  same  system,  which  pass  from  the 
brain  to  the  muscles,  the  will  acts  upon  these  in  produ- 
cing voluntary  motion.  Now  the  brain  is  not  in  constant 
action,  even  in  a  healthy  state,  for  it  requires  rest ;  and 
during  profound  sleep,  it  appears  to  be  in  a  state  of  com- 
plete torpor.  Yet  the  motions  of  the  voluntary  muscles 
may  still  act,  for  if  a  liquid  be  poured  into  the  mouth,  it 
is  swallowed,  and  the  position  of  the  body  is  changed, 
as  it  becomes  tired  of  one  position.  In  apoplexy,  also, 
when  all  the  senses  are  suspended,  irritation  produces 
action,  for  if  the  nose  be  tickled,  the  hand  is  raised  to 
remove  the  offending  cause.  Similar  phenomena  take 
place  in  animals,  where  the  cerebrum  has  been  removed, 
or  where  the  functions  are  completely  suspended  "by  a 
blow  on  the  head.  If,  in  such  cases,  the  eyelid  be  touch- 
ed with  a  straw,  the  lid  instantly  closes.  If  the  lid  be 
open,  and  a  candle  be  brought  near  the  eye,  in  the  night, 
the  pupil  contracts ;  and  if  the  foot  or  hand  be  pinched 
or  pricked,  it  is  instantly  removed. 

Dr.  Carpenter  states  that  in  one  of  the  experiments 
made  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  the  degree,  in  which 
the  activity  of  the  cerebrum  is  essential  to  the  maintain- 
ance  of  life,  a  pigeon  was  kept  alive  (if  alive  it  could  be 
called)  for  some  months  after  the  removal  of  its  cere- 
brum, running  when  it  was  pushed,  flying  when  it  was 
thrown  into  the  air,  drinking  when  its  beak  was  plunged 
into  water,  and  swallowing  when  food  was  put  into  its 
mouth ;  but  at  all  other  times,  or  when  left  to  itself,  it 
appeared  like  an  animal  in  a  profound  slumber.  Of  the 
humanity  of  such  experiments  it  is  needless  to  speak, 


- 

NERVOUS    SENSATION.  355 

though  it  is  riot  probable  the  poor  bird  underwent  any 
pain  after  the  first  operation. 

The  Brain  not  the  only  Source  of  Nervous  Power. — 
It  is  evident  from  the  above  facts,  and  especially  from 
the  experiment  with  the  pigeon,  that  we  cannot  regard 
the  brain  as  the  only  center,  or  source  of  nervous  power, 
and  absolutely  essential  to  animal  life,  but  that  we  must 
attribute  to  the  spinal  cord  no  small  influence  as  an  inde- 
pendent power  in  maintaining  the  vital  functions  of  the 
animal.  In  all  the  cases  of  motion,  without  the  influence 
of  the  brain,  it  must  be  observed  that  no  discretion,  or 
judgment  is  employed,  but  merely  an  irritated  action,  ex- 
cited by  the  power  of  some  stimulus  ;  the  motion  indeed 
is  never  spontaneous.  Thus  a  decapitated  frog  will 
remain  at  rest  unless  it  is  touched,  when  it  will  leap 
away  from  the  irritant.  In  like  manner,  in  the  case  above 
stated,  the  act  of  swallowing  would  not  be  performed 
unless  the  fauces  were  stimulated  by  the  food  or  drink ; 
and  even  respiratory  movements,  spontaneous  as  they 
may  seem  to  be,  would  not  probably  be  performed  unless 
the  lungs  were  stimulated  by  the  admission  of  venous 
blood. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  though  there  may  be  mus- 
cular motion  without  the  influence  of  the  brain,  still  it  is 
performed  without  the  act  of  the  will,  and  of  course  with- 
out the  interference  of  discretion  ;  but  that  these  motions 
rather  resemble  those  of  an  automaton,  when  its  springs 
are  touched. 

Are  these  Movements  performed  without  Feelings? 
A  question  now  arises,  whether  the  animal,  in  the  cases 
above  cited,  experiences  any  sensation  as  the  cause  of 
motion,  or  whether  it  depends  merely  on  nervous  irrita- 
tion. In  answer  to  this  question,  it  may  be  stated  that 
persons  suffering  from  an  injury  of  the  spinal  cord  may 
have  no  feeling  in  the  lower  limbs,  and  still  motion  may 
be  excited  in  these  members  by  tickling  the  soles  of  the 
feet,  the  patient  at  the  same  time,  being  insensible  of  the 
motion  or  its  cause  ;  the  nervous  influence  which  would 
otherwise  have  conveyed  the  impression  to  the  brain,  be- 
ing interrupted  by  the  injury  of  the  spine. 


356 


APPENDIX. 


Fig.  9. 


ARTERIAL  SYSTEM  OF  MAN. 


CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD.  357 

We  therefore  must  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  ac- 
tions performed  by  the  spinal  cord,  when  the  brain  is 
removed,  or  its  power  destroyed,  do  not  depend  on  sensa- 
tion ;  but  upon  a  peculiar  property  of  that  organ  by  which 
impressions  made  upon  certain  parts,  necessarily  excite 
motions  of  an  automatic  character.  See  Carpenter's 
Physiology^  p.  354—8. 

CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD. 

We  have  already  given  an  account  of  the  circulation 
in  insects,  the  amphibia,  fishes,  and  in  man  (pages 
127-53,)  and  we  propose  here  to  continue  the  subject,  by 
giving  a  more  detailed  account  of  the  arterial  system  of 
the  human  body,  with  an  engraved  illustration. 

If  the  student  will  compare  the  figure  here  introduced, 
with  Fig.  96  where  the  heart,  lungs,  and  diaphragm  are 
represented,  he  will  see  the  heart,  aorta,  and  a  number 
of  the  other  large  blood  vessels  figured  on  a  larger  scale 
than  in  the  present  figure. 

The  word  artery,  cornes  from  the  Greek,  and  signifies 
"  to  hold  air,"  from  the  circumstance  that  the  large  ves- 
sels near  the  heart,  are  found  empty  after  death,  and 
hence  were  supposed  to  contain  air  only. 

Having  given  an  account  of  the  circulation  in  man, 
with  figures  of  the  larger  vessels  at  p.  132,  we  proceed  to 
enlarge  upon  the  same  subject  by  means  of  Fig.  9,  which 
represents  the  arterial  system,  a,  The  temporal  artery. 
6,  The  carotid  artery,  c,  The  vertebral  artery,  d,  The 
subclavian  artery,  e,  The  axillary  artery,  f,  The  aorta. 
g,  The  brachial  artery.  £,  The  coeliac  artery,  f,  The 
renal  artery,  j,  The  iliac  artery,  k,  The  radial  artery. 
/,  The  femoral  artery.  7??,  The  tibial  artery,  n,  The  pos- 
terior tibial  artery,  o,  The  peroneal  artery,  p,  Artery 
of  the  foot. 

Observations  on  the  Arteries. — The  arterial  system  of 
the  greater  circulation  entirely  springs  from  one  large 
trunk,  the  aorta,  which  originates  in  the  left  ventricle  of 
the  heart,  and  is  the  only  vessel  which  passes  out  of  that 
cavity.  Tt  first  ascends  nearly  to  a  line  with  the  shoul- 


. 

358  APPENDIX. 

ders,  and  then  forms  a  curve  downwards,  called  the  arch 
of  the  aorta  (see  figure,)  and  descends  along  the  front  of 
the  spinal  column,  behind  the  heart,  as  far  as  the  lower 
part  of  the  trunk,  where  it  divides  into  two  great  branches, 
forming  the  iliac  and  femoral  arteries  ;  still  descending,  it 
forms  the  tibial  arteries,  and  spreads  over  the  feet. 

From  the  arch  of  the  aorta  are  given  off  the  vessels 
which  supply  the  head  and  arms,  as  the  carotids  and 
axillary  branches  ;  also  the  subclavians.  The  subcla- 
vian  and  carotid  arteries  of  the  right  side  commonly 
arise  together  from  the  aorta  in  man,  by  a  common  trunk, 
but  its  arrangement  varies  much  in  the  other  mammalia. 
Thus  in  the  elephant,  the  two  carotids  arise  by  a  common 
trunk, — the  two  subclavians  separately.  In  some  of  the 
whales,  all  four  are  separate.  In  the  bat,  the  subclavian 
and  carotid  of  the  left  side  arise  from  a  common  trunk, 
like  those  of  the  right ;  and  in  such  ruminating  animals  as 
have  long  necks,  all  four  arteries  come  off  from  the  aorta 
together,  by  a  large  trunk,  which  first  gives  off  the  sub- 
clavians on  each  side,  and  then  divides  into  the  carotids. 
" All  these  varieties"  says  Dr.  Carpenter,  occasionally 
present  themselves  in  man — a  fact  of  no  small  interest. 

Besides  the  branches  already  mentioned  as  given  off 
by  the  aorta,  there  are  others  of  no  less  importance, 
which  originate  from  the  same  source,  as  it  descends  to- 
ward the  extremities.  Among  these  are  the  cozliac, 
which  supplies  the  liver,  spleen,  and  stomach  ;  the 
renal,  which  goes  to  the  kidneys ;  and  the  mesenteric,  to 
the  intestines. 

Comparison  between  the  Arteries  of  Man  and  Birds. 
—It  is  both  curious  and  interesting  to  trace  the  similari- 
ty between  the  structure  of  our  own  species  and  that  of 
other  animals.  In  the  mammalia  as  a  class,  we  should 
not  expect  much  difference  in  the  general  structure  of 
the  viscera,  or  of  the  heart  and  blood-vessels,  and  it  is 
true  that  little  difference  exists.  But  in  the  birds,  the 
external  forms  and  habits  of  which  are  so  widely  removed 
from  the  above-mentioned  class,  that  we  could  not  sus- 
pect any  coincidence  of  internal  structure.  And  yet, 
physiologists  inform  us,  "  that  there  is  probably  not  a 


THE  VENOUS  SYSTEM.  359 

single  large  artery  in  man,  to  which  a  corresponding 
branch  might  not  be  found  in  birds  ;  and  on  the  other 
hand,  that  there  is  perhaps  no  artery  in  the  bird,  to 
which  there  is  not  an  analogous  branch  in  man.  The 
chief  difference  consists  in  the  relative  sizes  of  the  sev- 
eral trunks ;  but  these  correspond  closely  with  the 
amount  of  tissue  they  have  respectively  to  supply. 
Here,  then,  we  have  an  example  of  the  Unity  of  De- 
sign, which  we  see  every  where  prevalent  throughout 
Nature,  manifesting  itself  in  the  close  conformity  of  a 
great  number  of  apparently  different  structures,  to  one 
general  plan,  while  there  is,  at  the  same  time,  an  almost 
infinite  variety  in  the  details." 

THE  VENOUS  SYSTEM. 

The  arteries,  as  we  have  seen,  transmit  the  blood  to 
every  part  of  the  system  by  the  contractile  force  of  the 
heart.  All  the  large  arteries  are  deeply  situated,  that  is, 
none  of  them  lie  near  the  surface  of  the  body.  We 
may  observe  here  protective  care  and  design,  since  a 
wounded  artery  of  any  considerable  size  is  always  at- 
tended with  danger,  in  consequence  of  the  force  with 
which  the  heart  propels  the  blood  through  it ;  but,  being 
deeply  seated,  accidents  to  them  are  of  course  much  less 
common  than  they  would  be  were  they  situated,  like  the 
veins,  near  the  surface.  When  an  artery  is  wounded, 
the  blood  spouts  out  by  jets,  with  great  force,  and  is  of  a 
light  vermilion  color.  If  a  vein  of  the  same  size  be 
wounded,  the  blood  merely  flows  out,  unless  the  passage 
towards  the  heart  is  interrupted  by  a  ligature,  as  pre- 
paratory to  blood-letting,  when  it  runs  in  a  continued 
stream,  but  not  in  interrupted  jets,  occasioned  by  the 
motion  of  the  heart,  as  in  lesions  of  an  artery.  This 
difference  of  the  manner  in  which  blood  flows  from  arte- 
ries and  veins  should  be  remembered,  since  life  may 
sometimes  depend  thereon.  If  the  blood  flows  in  jets, 
and  in  considerable  quantity,  there  is  danger,  and  the 
attendants  ought  to  press  upon  the  part,  perhaps  with  the 
thumb,  until  proper  assistance  can  be  obtained.  The 
wound  of  a  vein  is  attended  with  much  less  danger,  and 


360  APPENDIX. 

besides  the  absence  of  jets,  may  at  once  be  known  from 
arterial  blood  by  its  dark  color. 

Capillary  Vessels. — The  arteries  having  conveyed  the 
blood  to  all  parts  of  the  system,  it  is  taken  Up  by  the 
capillary  vessels,  which  form  the  connection  between  the 
arteries  and  veins,  and  is  thus  transmitted  to  the  latter. 
These  vessels  are  called  capillary,  from  capillus  a  hair, 
on  account  of  their  extreme  minuteness.  They  pervade 
all  parts  of  the  system,  and  when  the  finger  is  punctured 
by  a  needle,  more  or  less  of  them  are  wounded,  and  dis- 
charge their  contents. 

Distribution  of  the  Veins. — The  veins  are  distributed 
in  the  same  manner  with  the  arteries,  but  they  are  far 
more  numerous,  and  as  a  whole,  are  considered  more^ 
capacious  than  the  arteries.  -  The  veins  are  furnished 
with  valves,  composed  of  folds  of  the  inner  membrane,  or 
coat  of  the  vein.  They  open  toward  the  direction  of  the 
current  of  the  blood,  and  their  use  appears  to  be  to  pre- 
vent the  fluid  from  returning  from  the  heart  towards  the 
surface  of  the  body.  In  the  lower  limbs  these  valves  are 
very  important,  as  they  support  the  column  of  blood, 
which  to  all  appearance,  would  otherwise  rupture  the 
veins. 

Particular  Veins. — With  respect  to  the  names  and 
courses  of  the  several  veins,  supplying  the  different  parts 
of  the  system,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  speak  in  a  book 
so  very  elementary  as  this.  We  have  already,  p.  105, 
figured  and  described  the  office  of  the  large  veins  near 
the  heart,  called  the  ascending  and  descending,  vena  cava. 
Many  of  the  veins,  like  the  arteries,  are  named  from  the 
parts  through  which  they  pass,  as  the  axillary  veins,  the 
subclavian  veins,  the  radial  vein,  &c 

Hartford,  Sept.,  1847. 


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